America by Air1 / 43
Welcome Back!National Air and Space Museum Docent TrainingNMB Spotlight Training: America by Air 2 / 43
In this training...This lesson will introduce you to providing spotlights in the America by Air gallery at the National Air and Space Museum: National Mall Building. After completing this lesson you will have learned more about:
This lesson, and its corresponding quiz cover the very basic content that you will need to know for starting America by Air Spotlights at NASM's National Mall Building. 3 / 43
America by Air America by Air traces the history of commercial aviation in the United States from airmail to airlines. Exploring the history of air transportation in the United States, this exhibit shows how the federal government has shaped the airline industry, how improvements in technology have revolutionized air travel, how the flying experience has changed, and how different airlines have fared over the course of the history of commercial aviation. Gallery Overview Video Please watch the following video to learn about America by Air from Curator Bob van der Linden. This section of the training is 23 minutes long. This video is fully captioned. If you would like to turn the captions on, click on the button in the bottom right corner of the video screen that says "CC." 4 / 43
Introduction Flying was new and daring in the early 20th century. Traveling by airplane was rare. The country didn’t have airports or airlines. But by century’s end, you could travel almost anywhere in the United States in hours. Through this gallery, the following questions are explored:
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Section 1: The Early Years of Transportation, 1914-1927 The first airline didn’t start until 11 years after the Wright brothers’ first flights in 1903. The flying experience was exciting in the early years, but it was also expensive, uncomfortable, and sometimes dangerous. Aviation technology kept improving but was still crude. Pilots navigated along limited air routes. Faced with these barriers, the first airlines couldn’t earn enough to succeed. A big boost came when the U.S. government began flying the mail. By 1927, the country had a commercial airline system. Object Highlight: Standard J-1 (Lincoln Standard H.S.) One of the first mail-carrying airplanes, the Standard J-1 was originally a primary trainer during World War I. Modified with larger engines, six JR-1Bs were flown by the Army for the U.S. Post Office’s new air mail service. Production ended in 1918 after 1,600 J-1s and all its versions were built. After the war, the Nebraska Aircraft Corporation modified a number of surplus Standard J-1s for sale to the public. Powered by a 150-horsepower engine, the modified Lincoln-Standard H.S. could carry up to four passengers, depending on the version. This aircraft is believed to be one of the three-seat models sold during the early 1920s. Object Highlight: Knee Board and Map What is the Pilot Holding? It’s a knee board. The pilot would strap it to his leg. Then as he flew his route, he would turn the knobs to scroll the map. Joseph L. Mortensen navigated the air mail route from Salt Lake City, Utah, to Reno, Nevada, in 1920 using this scrolling map and knee board. The World’s First Scheduled Airline The first airline lasted only three months. The St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line first flew across Tampa Bay on January 1, 1914. The flight covered 18 miles (29 kilometers). It took only 23 minutes, making it 11 hours shorter than a trip by rail. The Airboat Line safely transported 1,204 passengers across the bay. But without a continuing subsidy from St. Petersburg or steady income from tourist traffic, it could not survive. The airline closed at the end of March. Object Highlight: Benoist XIV Model A Benoist XIV was purchased for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line from St. Louis aircraft manufacturer Thomas Benoist. The airplane carried one passenger, who sat next to the pilot in the open cockpit. The Benoist was powered by a Roberts 75-horsepower (56-kilowatt), six-cylinder, water-cooled engine. Early Airlines Sputter Out After World War I, many people began to operate commercial airlines – but every one of them failed because of high operating costs. Airlines could not make enough money carrying passengers or cargo. Improved technology and better organizational systems would have helped. In the meantime, the airlines needed financial subsidies to stay aloft. “Yesterday I flew to Cleveland for lunch in the ‘Buckeye,’ an 11-passenger flying limousine. . . . It’s Magic! . . . It was like being in heaven.”—Miss “Peggy” MacLean on flying Aeromarine from Detroit to Cleveland in 1922 Aeromarine Airways Starting in 1920, Aeromarine Airways carried wealthy passengers from Miami to the Bahamas or Cuba, aboard flying boats. These overseas flights were a popular way to drink legally during the Prohibition era. During the off-season, Aeromarine flew between Cleveland and Detroit. Despite its initial success, the airline eventually ran out of money. It ceased flying in 1924 after safely carrying 17,000 passengers. 6 / 43
The Post Office Flies U.S. Air Mail Saved the Early Airline Industry Air transportation was financially risky. Early airlines proved unprofitable—they flew and then folded. The federal government stepped in to foster a new transportation system, as it had with stagecoaches, steamships, and railroads. It authorized the U.S. Post Office to begin flying the mail. In 1918, the Post Office created the U.S. Air Mail Service. Mail Falls From the Sky In 1911, the Post Office dramatically demonstrated the potential of air mail. Pilot Earle Ovington took off on September 23 from an international air meet on Long Island, New York. With a full mail bag held between his legs, he flew to Mineola, a few miles away. While banking his airplane he pushed the bag overboard. The bag fell to the ground and the local postmaster retrieved it. Diverse Stories: Earle OvingtonEarle Ovington was sworn in as America’s “first aeroplane mail carrier”. While Ovington’s flight in his Queen monoplane was purely ceremonial, it marked the first time an airplane officially carried U.S. mail. Object Highlight: Earle Ovington Earle Ovington was sworn in as America’s “first aeroplane mail carrier”. While Ovington’s flight in his Queen monoplane was purely ceremonial, it marked the first time an airplane officially carried U.S. mail. Object Highlight: Queen Model Earle Ovington flew a Queen airplane on his brief air mail flight in 1911. The airplane’s design was based on the Blériot XI, a popular French monoplane (an airplane with one pair of wings). Object Highlight: Curtiss JN-4H Model The Curtiss JN-4H was the first aircraft used in regular service by the Post Office. Popularly known as Jennys, JN 4Hs were Army trainers equipped with a Hispano-Suiza 150-horsepower engine. They could carry 140 pounds (63 kilograms) of mail 250 miles (400 kilometers) at a cruising speed of 75 mph (120 km/h). A Curtiss JN-4D is currently on display at the Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia. “Jenny” Is a Nickname The airplane’s official name is the Curtiss JN-4. If you say the letters “JN” out loud, they sound like “Jay-En.” That was shortened to “Jen.” It eventually was changed to “Jenny.” “I always considered it a very safe airplane, because the carburetor would vibrate the airplane so badly that it would shake the ice off the wings.”—Pilot Ernest M. Allison on the Jenny Object Highlight: Compass Used on the First Scheduled Air Mail Flight On May 15, 1918, Lt. Howard P. Culver navigated between Philadelphia and Belmont Park, near New York City, using this liquid-filled compass installed in his Curtiss Jenny. Object Highlight: Air Mail Bag On most early mail planes, air mail was placed in heavy canvas bags and carried inside a special compartment in front of the pilot. Object Highlight: Air Mail Pilot’s Coat and Helmet Lt. James Edgerton flew the mail from Philadelphia to Washington during the first scheduled air mail flight on May 15, 1918. He wore this helmet and coat during that flight. Edgerton left the Army in 1919 and became the Chief of Flying for the U.S. Air Mail Service. 7 / 43
Air Mail Gets on Schedule On the morning of May 15, 1918, two air mail pilots in Curtiss Jennys took off within minutes of each other, one from Washington, DC, the other from Long Island, New York. At Philadelphia, they would exchange mailbags and fly on. At least that was the plan….President Woodrow Wilson presided over the opening ceremonies at West Potomac Park in Washington, DC. He spoke with Maj. Reuben H. Fleet (above image), who organized the initial air mail service by assembling the necessary aircraft and pilots from the Army Air Service. Lieutenant Boyle begins his takeoff run from the Polo Grounds in Washington. Despite Major Fleet’s advice, Boyle lost his way. Navigating by a road map and a faulty compass, Boyle tried to follow railroad tracks. South of Washington, he landed to seek directions. On landing he flipped, damaged his airplane, and could not continue. Meanwhile, Lt. Torrey Webb flew from Belmont Race Track, Long Island, New York, and reached Philadelphia an hour later. There he transferred his mail to Lt. James Edgerton’s waiting Jenny for the flight to Washington, DC. After news of Lieutenant Boyle’s mishap reached Philadelphia, the connecting flight left Philadelphia and arrived in New York on time—but without Boyle’s mail bag from Washington. Special Stamps for Air Mail The Post Office created a series of air mail stamps when it began flying the mail. The ones above were first used in 1918. Oops! Post Office printers made a mistake when they first printed this stamp. Today very few of these rare “upside-down Jenny” stamps still exist. These famous stamps are worth a lot of money. Did You Know? The words “Air Mail” were not added to air mail stamps until 1926, which was 15 years after the first airplane carried the mail. Standard J-1 vs. Curtiss JN-4 The Post Office bought six Standard J-1 trainers to add to the Curtiss JN-4Hs already in service during the summer of 1918. While a sturdy aircraft, the J-1 was not as easy to fly as the more popular JN-4. Neither could carry a large payload of mail and were replaced by more powerful Curtiss R-4s and de Havilland DH-4s. How Did Air Mail Pilots Find Their Way? Early pilots navigated by looking for familiar landmarks: towns, rivers, railroads, race tracks, large buildings, and lakes. Navigating by keeping the ground in view and following landmarks is called “contact flying.” Today modern instruments can help pinpoint a pilot’s location, but many private pilots still use contact flying to find their way. Diverse Stories: Wild Bill William “Wild Bill” Hopson flew the mail for eight years in the 1920s. He earned his nickname by breaking speed records and damaging airplanes. He was popular with other pilots but regularly scolded by his supervisors! “I have heard numerous reports of your stunting mail ships. . . . This is absolutely against regulations and further actions of the kind will merit disciplinary action.”—Superintendent D. B. Colyer scolding Wild Bill on his wild ways with an air mail airplane He died in 1928 when his airplane crashed along the New York to Chicago route. He was carrying 1,000 pounds (454 kilograms) of mail, including a large shipment of diamonds. Only 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of mail were saved from the plane’s wreckage. The diamonds disappeared. What’s worth the price? Air mail offered speedy delivery—at a hefty price. In the 1920s, a letter sent by air mail cost four times the ground delivery cost. Before electronic banking, paper bank documents had to be physically delivered. Sending bank documents by air mail was faster than ground transport. The speed saved money on interest for documents like stock certificates and bearer bonds. Expensive items like diamonds were less likely to be stolen. During air transport they were handled fewer times and delivered faster than by ground transport. Beyond Wood and Cloth Early aviation technology was primitive—most airplanes were inefficient wood and cloth biplanes, like the Wright brothers’ first airplanes. To boost aeronautical research, the U.S. government created the NACA. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was formed by Congress in 1915. By the end of the 1920s, the NACA’s efforts were bearing fruit. The NACA soon became the nation’s preeminent aeronautical research organization and attracted some of the nation’s most creative engineers. Pioneering research by the NACA and its successor, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), solved many of flight’s most difficult problems. The NACA/NASA greatly improved the performance and safety of all aircraft. It developed some of the most important technological innovations in air transportation. This critical research continues today. Water-Cooled Engines Most airplanes in the 1920s used engines cooled by water. While powerful for their size, water-cooled engines were heavy and unreliable. They required large radiators, which created aerodynamic drag. Their heavy and complex pumps and plumbing systems often leaked. Still, they were more powerful than the bulky, air-cooled engines of the time and were widely used on all types of aircraft. After World War I Europeans led the world in aeronautics after World War I. They developed strong, lightweight, single shell or monocoque (MON-ah-cock) fuselage construction. In Germany, Hugo Junkers patented the strut and wire-free cantilevered wing, and Adolf Rohrbach designed an all-metal airliner, the Zeppelin E.4/20. Object Highlight: De Havilland DH-4 By 1921, modified de Havilland DH-4 light bombers were being used as mail planes. They soon become the symbol of the U.S. Air Mail Service. Object Highlight: Liberty V-12 Designed for light bombers in World War I, this engine was widely used during the 1920s. Liberty engines powered the Post Office’s de Havilland DH-4s and most mail planes later used by early airlines. Although powerful, the water-cooled Liberty was not as efficient or reliable as the new generation of air-cooled engines introduced by the Wright and Pratt & Whitney companies in the late 1920s. What Was It Like To Fly? Novel and Exciting…and Loud and Uncomfortable! Flying was an experience few people ever got to relish or regret. In the early years of flight, pilots and the occasional passenger sat in open cockpits exposed to wind and weather. Even in Europe, where large transports carried passengers in comparative luxury, the ride was harsh, noisy, and disagreeable. Of the more than 200 pilots hired by the Post Office from 1918 to 1926, 35 died flying the mail. Fatalities dropped after the first few years, but flying the mail remained a dangerous—and sometimes deadly—job. Object Highlight: Air Mail Pilot's Wings Air mail pilots wore heavy flight suits instead of uniforms, but they were issued badges or wings for identification. Object Highlight: Air Mail Pilot’s Knee Board and Map This “knee board” holds a map, and was strapped to the pilot’s leg. The pilot would turn the knobs to scroll the map as he flew his route. Joseph L. Mortensen navigated the air mail route from Salt Lake City, Utah, to Reno, Nevada, in 1920 using this scrolling map and knee board. Who Flew? Often, only the pilot. Most early airplanes could carry only a single extra person, if any. Few passenger-carrying airlines existed. And only wealthy travelers could afford the tickets. Except for the occasional hop in the spare seat of a barnstorming Curtiss Jenny, few Americans flew as passengers. 8 / 43
Air Mail Everywhere and All the Time Despite some early setbacks, the Air Mail Service completed about 90% of its flights. A few months after service began in 1918, the Army withdrew from flying the mail and left the Post Office in charge with its own pilots and aircraft. By 1920, air mail service flew coast to coast. By 1924, mail was also being flown at night, thanks to the Post Office’s lighted airways across the nation. Diverse Stories: Capt. Benjamin Lipsner, Air Transportation Pioneer Capt. Benjamin Lipsner helped guide the Air Mail Service during its early days. Under Lipsner, it acquired new Standard biplanes and shifted its Washington DC base of operations to College Park Airport in nearby Maryland, the oldest airport in the world. The service became a proving ground for civil aviation. Diverse Stories: Col. Paul Henderson, Air Transportation Pioneer As Second Assistant Postmaster General, Col. Paul Henderson helped establish overnight air mail service. Under his direction, powerful rotating beacons were placed along the transcontinental route to guide pilots in the dark. He modeled the system after an experimental lighted airway the Army had created between Dayton and Columbus, Ohio. Flying Mail Coast to Coast When regular overnight air mail service began in 1924, it slashed coast-to-coast delivery time to 29 hours—almost three days faster than by rail. Object Highlight: Air Route Beason Rotating beacons like this one, developed by the General Electric Company, were placed 10 miles (16 kilometers) apart along air mail routes. They rotated once every 10 seconds, and their powerful beams could be seen 40 miles (60 kilometers) away. A Daring Demonstration On February 22, 1921, four air mail flights set out to prove the mail could be flown coast to coast in record time by flying day and night. The going proved rough. One pilot crashed and died. Treacherous weather stopped others. But the fourth flight got through, making it from San Francisco to New York in 33 hours and 20 minutes. This distance would take over four and a half days by train and three days by air/rail (flown by day and shipped by train at night). Within three years, mail was being flown across the country, day and night, in only 29 hours. 9 / 43
The Airlines Deliver Once the Post Office had established a reliable air mail system, it turned air mail delivery over to private airlines. The Post Office first established a strong economic foundation for commercial aviation. Then in 1925, it began contracting with private airlines to carry the mail. Within two years commercial airlines were providing dependable air mail service. The federal government continued to shape the new industry by regulating the airways, guiding aviation’s growth, and promoting safety and technology. Object Highlight: Presidential Fountain Pen New Laws Help Commercial Aviation This Presidential Fountain Pen was used by President Calvin Coolidge to sign the Contract Air Mail Act. The Contract Air Mail Act of 1925 allowed the Post Office to pay private airlines to deliver the mail. Payments were based on the weight of the mail carried. The Post Office later provided a subsidy to help offset airline operating losses, until more efficient aircraft could be developed. To guide the development of this new industry, Congress in 1926 passed the Air Commerce Act, which established the Aeronautics Branch of the Commerce Department, the predecessor of today’s Federal Aviation Administration. Diverse Stories: M. Clyde Kelly, Air Transportation Pioneer Representative M. Clyde Kelly guided the Contract Air Mail Act through Congress in 1925. A progressive Republican from western Pennsylvania, Kelly felt that the Post Office had accomplished its goals and that it was time to let more efficient private enterprise fly the mail. The legislation became popularly known as the “Kelly Act.” Diverse Stories: William P. MacCracken Jr., Air Transportation Pioneer Aviation legal expert William P. MacCracken Jr. crafted the Air Commerce Act, which gave aviation a sound legal foundation. Under his leadership as the first Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics, the Commerce Department pioneered safety regulation, required the licensing of pilots and the certification of aircraft, and encouraged the development of navigation aids. 10 / 43
Section 2: Airline Expansion and Innovation, 1927-1941 How did World War I-style biplanes of the 1920s evolve into high performance, ocean-crossing airliners in fewer than 15 years? Credit the risk-taking pilots, the engineers, and the entrepreneurs. Even so, the government was needed to guide the industry toward financial stability and a reliable infrastructure. Industry advances proceeded hand-in-hand with breakthrough technology. Passenger service took root and grew. Air routes spread across the country. Still, only the wealthy and business travelers could afford flying’s high cost. And the flying experience, while improving, remained an uncomfortable adventure. Object Highlight: Huff-Daland Duster Delta Air Lines got its start with the Huff-Daland Duster, the world’s first crop-dusting aircraft. The Huff-Daland Duster company, created as a division of Huff-Daland Airplanes in 1924, was the world's first aerial crop-dusting company. Huff-Daland's 18 Dusters made up the largest privately owned fleet in the world in the mid-1920s. The company dusted U.S. crops in the summer months, and shifted to Peru in the winter. In 1928, Vice President and General Manager C. E. Woolman led a movement that bought the crop-dusting division. The new company, named Delta Air Service, began passenger flights on June 17, 1929. Following the death of C. E. Woolman in September 1966, several hundred Delta volunteers restored a Huff-Daland Duster as a memorial to Delta's founder. It was donated to the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum in 1968. Object Highlight: Fairchild FC-2 This Fairchild FC-2 was one of the first aircraft flown by Pan American–Grace Airways (Panagra) in South America. It made the first scheduled passenger flight in Peru, from Lima to Talara, on September 13, 1928. It could carry five people, including the pilot. Developed for aerial photography, the Fairchild FC-2 was the production version of Sherman Fairchild’s first aircraft, the FC-1. It could cruise for long distances at high altitudes, and its enclosed cabin protected the crew and equipment. The design was so good that the aircraft’s duties rapidly expanded to include air mail delivery, passenger flights, freight hauling, and bush flying. Object Highlight: Northrop Alpha Introduced in 1930, the Northrop Alpha represented a transitional aircraft design, a blend of old and new aircraft technology. It could carry six passengers in a snug, comfortable cabin, but the pilot still remained exposed to the elements. The aircraft was all metal and streamlined, but had the fixed landing gear and single engine of older aircraft. Designed by John K. “Jack” Northrop, the Alpha was a great step forward in metal aircraft design. Many of its features, particularly the multi-cellular wing, were later used in the Douglas DC-2 and DC-3. Although more powerful twin-engine aircraft made the Alpha obsolete for passenger service, it continued to serve as a fast express cargo plane. Object Highlight: Ford 5-AT Tri-Motor Noisy but reliable, the Ford Tri-Motor played a major role in convincing the public that air travel was safe and practical. Its all-metal, corrugated aluminum construction and the prestigious Ford name made it immediately popular with passengers and airline operators. Affectionately known as the “Tin Goose,” the Ford Tri-Motor was the largest civil aircraft in America when it first flew on August 2, 1926. The 5-AT was a more powerful version of the earlier 4-AT. It had three Pratt & Whitney Wasp radial engines and entered service in 1928. This airplane was restored by American Airlines. Object Highlight: Boeing 247-D The world’s first modern airliner, the Boeing 247 revolutionized air transportation when it entered service with United Air Lines in 1933. It was 50% faster than its competitors thanks to the sleek, low-wing, all-metal construction; retractable landing gear; and supercharged, air-cooled engines. This innovative design launched a new generation of commercial airliners. The Boeing 247-D version pioneered the use of controllable-pitch propellers and wing de-icer boots. This airplane is the first production 247-D. Roscoe Turner, Clyde Pangborn, and Reeder Nichols flew it in the 1934 England-to-Australia International Air Derby, better known as the MacRobertson Race. The airplane placed third overall and second in the transport category, completing the 11,300-mile (18,180-kilometer) journey in just under 93 hours. It was returned to United Air Lines and flown as the airline’s flagship until replaced by DC-3s. Object Highlight: Douglas DC-3 Entering service in 1936, the Douglas DC-3 became the most successful airliner in the formative years of air transportation. It was the first to fly profitably without government subsidy. More than 13,000 of the DC-3 civil and military versions were produced, both U.S. and foreign built. Many are still flying. The 21-seat DC-3 was an enlarged variant of the popular 14-seat DC-2. Comfortable by the standards of its time, the DC-3 was very safe because of its strong, multiple-spar wing and all-metal construction. The airlines liked it because it was reliable, inexpensive to operate, and therefore profitable. Pilots liked its stability, ease of handling, and excellent single-engine performance. This airplane flew more than 56,700 hours with Eastern Air Lines. AIR ROUTES Commercial air routes grew from early U.S. air mail routes to become the expansive networks or “hub-and-spoke” routes we know today. Diverse Stories: Edgar H. Dix, New Generation of Leaders In 1927, Edgar Dix, the chief metallurgist for the Aluminum Corporation of America (ALCOA), announced the development of Alclad, which combined the strength of aluminum alloys with a non-corroding top layer of pure aluminum. Alclad allowed aircraft designers to build corrosion-free, all-metal aircraft for the first time and was instrumental in the development of larger, stronger, and more efficient commercial and military aircraft. It is widely used today. Diverse Stories: Frederick Rentschler, New Generation of Leaders Formerly president of Wright Aeronautical, Frederick Rentschler left Wright in 1925 to form the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Company to build a larger version of the J-5 Whirlwind engine, the Wasp. The Wasp was the first of many successful Pratt & Whitney radial engines that powered succeeding generations of airliners and military aircraft. Rentschler joined with William Boeing in 1928 to create the United Aircraft and Transport Corporation, the first successful aviation holding company. That company exists today as United Technologies. Diverse Stories: Frank W. Caldwell, New Generation of Leaders Working first for the U.S. Army at McCook Field and later with Hamilton Standard Propeller Corporation, Frank Caldwell was instrumental in the development of the first successful controllable-pitch propeller. This innovation greatly improved the performance of propeller-driven aircraft, such as the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-2 and DC-3, by optimizing the angle of the propeller blades for both low-speed and high-speed flight. For his work, Caldwell and Hamilton Standard received the Collier Trophy in 1933. Diverse Stories: Fred E. Weick, New Generation of Leaders Originally an engineer building emergency landing fields for the U.S. Air Mail Service, Fred Weick joined the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in the mid-1920s and was instrumental in building the first full-scale wind tunnel for propeller research. His work led to the development of the NACA cowling, which greatly reduced the drag of air-cooled radial engines while improving their cooling, thus greatly improving aircraft efficiency and productivity. Weick and the NACA won the 1929 Collier Trophy for this work. Diverse Stories: Thomas Braniff, New Generation of Leaders Thomas Braniff had been selling insurance in Oklahoma when he joined his brother Paul in creating Braniff Airways in 1930. Braniff later led the fight by independent airlines to break the power of the airline holding companies that dominated air transportation in the 1930s. After acquiring a mail contract in 1934, Braniff became a large regional carrier serving the southern United States. Thomas Braniff assumed control over the airline, as his knowledge of finance proved invaluable in the airline’s development. Diverse Stories: William A. Patterson, New Generation of Leaders As a bank officer in 1929, William Patterson helped Boeing to buy Pacific Air Transport. Impressed by Patterson’s ability, Philip Johnson hired him to run Boeing Air Transport and later United Air Lines. “Pat” Patterson became president of United in 1934, after Johnson was wrongfully barred from the industry by the Air Mail Act of 1934. Under Patterson, United was the largest domestic carrier for many years. His paternal manner left a lasting imprint on the airline’s staff and service. He retired in 1966. Diverse Stories: Cyrus R. Smith, New Generation of Leaders Hired in 1929 as an accountant for a predecessor of American Airlines, Cyrus Smith became one of the airline industry’s most influential figures. His managerial skills so impressed Errett L. Cord, who in 1932 had seized control of American’s parent company, The Aviation Corporation, that Cord promoted “C. R.” to president of American. Under Smith’s astute direction, American became the largest airline in the United States and was responsible for introducing the famous Douglas DC-3 airliner. He led the company until the mid-1960s. Diverse Stories: Edward V. Rickenbacker, New Generation of Leaders America’s foremost World War I ace, Capt. “Eddie” Rickenbacker entered commercial aviation in 1926 with Florida Airways. After working for General Motors, he moved to American Airways before returning to GM as vice president of the North American Aviation Corporation and its Eastern Air Lines subsidiary. In 1938 he bought control of Eastern and made “The Great Silver Fleet” one of the nation’s major airlines and the first airline to carry mail without subsidy. His reluctance to introduce jet aircraft, along with his difficult manner, forced his removal in 1964. Diverse Stories: Collett E. Woolman, New Generation of Leaders Entomologist Collett Woolman helped to start Huff Daland Dusters in the Mississippi Delta to combat the boll weevil by aerial crop dusting. As Delta Air Service, the company carried passengers throughout the South until it was purchased by American Airways in 1929. Woolman returned to crop dusting until the Air Mail Act of 1934 opened new opportunities for small companies. Woolman quickly formed Delta Air Corporation and turned the new company, soon renamed Delta Air Lines, into one of the nation’s most important and profitable carriers. He retired as president in 1965. Diverse Stories: Arthur E. Raymond, New Generation of Leaders As the leader of the design team that created the immortal Douglas DC-3, Arthur Raymond revolutionized air travel. Fast, safe, and efficient, the DC-3 helped free the airlines from their need for government subsidy. By the end of the 1930s, 95 percent of all commercial air traffic in the United States was flown on Raymond-designed Douglas aircraft. Educated at Harvard and MIT, Raymond also played a leading role in developing all of Douglas’s subsequent airliners through the jet-powered DC-8. Raymond also was one of the founders of the influential Rand Corporation research center and later served as an advisor to NASA on the Gemini and Apollo programs. 11 / 43
Getting People in the Air “We think it is necessary to give some aid to the passenger-carrying lines, particularly if by giving that aid we greatly increase the air mail facilities in the country.”—Walter F. Brown, Postmaster General By the end of the 1920s, passenger service barely existed. Private airlines continued flying the mail along an expanding system of air mail routes. Airlines that carried only mail favored small, single-engine airplanes. Larger multi-engine aircraft were needed to carry passengers, but those airplanes were too costly to operate. The Post Office’s bidding process for air routes resulted in an uneven payment system—some airlines prospered while others did not. The short-term contracts also discouraged long-term investment, hindering growth. Reform was needed for the airline system to expand. Object Highlight: Wright J-5 Whirlwind The Wright J-5 Whirlwind is considered the first modern aircraft engine. Developed by the Wright Aeronautical Corporation from its Lawrance J-1 engine, the J-5 produced 220 horsepower and was the first engine to have sodium-cooled exhaust valves and to be self-lubricating. These innovations greatly increased its reliability. The J-5 won the prestigious Collier Trophy for 1927. Charles Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis was equipped with a J-5. Whirlwinds were also fitted to many early transport aircraft, including Ford 4-AT Tri-Motors, and the Huff-Daland Duster and Fairchild FC-2. Object Highlight: Pratt & Whitney Wasp When Wright Aeronautical refused to further develop its successful J-5 Whirlwind engine, its president Frederick Rentschler, chief designer George Mead, and chief engineer Andrew Willgoos left the company to build their own high-performance, air-cooled radial. Working in the defunct Pratt & Whitney tool company building in Hartford, Connecticut, they created the Wasp. Reliable and efficient, the 425-horsepower, nine-cylinder, air-cooled Wasp became the preferred engine for many military and commercial aircraft, including the Ford 5-AT Tri-Motor and the Boeing 40A. The engine displayed here was the first Wasp built. Cross-Country by Air and Rail In 1929, Transconti¬nental Air Transport (TAT) started passenger service between New York and Los Angeles using a combination of trains and planes. Night flying was hazardous, so travelers took airplanes by day and trains by night. Fly or Drive? TAT air-rail service took a day less than by train alone, but a ticket cost a whopping $338. (In 1929, a new Ford Model A car cost $525; a Chevrolet Coach cost $595.) Transcontinen¬tal Air Transport hired Charles Lindbergh as a technical advisor. Lindbergh selected the aircraft, chose and planned TAT’s cross-country route, and oversaw the creation of all the necessary airfields and installations. TAT and its successor, Transcontinental and Western Air (TWA), became known as “The Lindbergh Line.” Diverse Stories: Clement Keys Far-sighted investment banker and Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company president Clement Keys started TAT to demonstrate that flying passengers was now practical. Earlier, he created National Air Transport to fly the mail between New York and Chicago. In 1929, he formed North American Aviation and the Curtiss-Wright Corporation as holding companies. Object Highlight: Curtiss Carrier Pigeon Powered by the venerable Liberty engine, the Curtiss Carrier Pigeon was designed to carry mail along National Air Transport’s lucrative New York–Chicago route. Both Curtiss and National were owned by pioneer aviation entrepreneur Clement Keys. Object Highlight: Curtiss Condor First flown in 1932, the Curtiss Condor could carry 14 passengers and had sleeping berths for night flight. Although comfortable and fast, it was expensive to operate. Eastern Air Transport and American Airways flew the Condor, but newer designs soon replaced it. 12 / 43
Aviation Becomes Big Business Charles Lindbergh’s historic 1927 transatlantic flight and a stock market boom spurred investor interest in aviation. An intense period of industry-wide mergers and consolidation followed. Betting That Bigger is Better Between 1928 and 1929, most of America’s aviation industry was consolidated into four large aviation holding companies. While consolidation promised greater efficiency and increased capital for investment, airlines remained unprofitable without government help.
Diverse Stories: Charles Lindbergh Lindbergh: The Most Famous Flyer Air mail pilot Charles Lindbergh gained instant celebrity as the first person to fly alone nonstop from New York to Paris in 1927. He was the hero of the day. Every child in the country knew his name. His Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis airplane (on display in Boeing Milestones of Flight on the first floor) became equally famous. The “Lindbergh boom” in aviation followed. Aircraft industry stocks rose in value, and interest in flying skyrocketed. Lindbergh’s subsequent U.S. publicity tour heralded the airplane as a safe, reliable form of transportation. Lindbergh used his fame to promote the expansion of commercial aviation. Transcontinental Air Transport hired him to help select TAT’s aircraft, routes, systems, and equipment. He also advised Pan American Airways and was instrumental in its expansion. Object Highlight: Boeing 40A Model Powered by Pratt & Whitney’s Wasp engine, the Boeing 40A could carry two passengers. Thanks to the biplane’s large payload capacity and low operating costs, Boeing Air Transport won the coveted air mail route from Chicago to San Francisco in 1927 and operated the route at a profit. Boeing developed a larger version of the aircraft, the Boeing 40B, which could carry 2,000 pounds (4,400 kilograms) of mail and four passengers. The pilot flew the airplane from an open cockpit behind the passenger compartment. Object Highlight: "Aviation: The Air Mail Game" Jumping on the public’s enthusiasm for aviation, Parker Brothers introduced Aviation: The Air Mail Game in 1929. The game challenged two to four players to deliver the mail to 12 cities between Boston and San Francisco. Red cards determined destinations, and blue cards determined flight conditions. Good weather sped up the mail; bad weather or engine problems delayed it. The game capitalized on Charles Lindbergh’s celebrity: each card showed his Spirit of St. Louis, even though the Spirit never flew the mail. 13 / 43
Reforms and Crises Shake Up the Airlines Postmaster General Walter Brown was the most important architect of the nation’s passenger airline industry. The wave of airline mergers created large holding companies. Brown believed these could provide the economic clout to develop the industry, boost passenger travel, and reduce government subsidies. Brown helped draft the McNary-Watres Act of 1930. It changed how airlines were paid, and made direct government aid, or subsidies, more fair. The act also redrew the nation’s air route system and provided economic incentives to encourage airlines to carry passengers. Diverse Stories: Walter Brown As postmaster general, Walter Brown sought to direct the growth of commercial aviation through economic regulation. His management of the system became the model for subsequent airline regulation. Today’s air transportation system, and its evolution through subsidies, regulation, and deregulation, reflects exactly what Brown envisioned many decades ago. In 1929, one year before Brown’s reforms took place, 6,000 passengers flew in the United States. Four years later, that number exceeded 450,000, a growth of 7,500%. Today almost 800 million passengers fly every year. Reforming the Air Mail System Walter Brown reformed the air mail system in four ways:
Brown’s “Spoils Conferences” Walter Brown met with airline leaders in May 1930 to implement the McNary-Watres Act. When consensus could not be reached, he determined routes and airline territories himself. To ensure the survival of well-run passenger airlines, Brown encouraged them to merge with air mail lines. This move saved many airlines during the Depression. He forced other mergers in the interest of efficiency and excluded small, marginal carriers. Critics later labeled these meetings the “Spoils Conferences.” To fly the new central air mail route, Transcontinental Air Transport merged with part of Western Air Express to form Transcontinental & Western Air (TWA). Boeing Air Transport and National Air Transport combined to begin transcontinental service in 1930 and later became known as United Air Lines. The Air Mail Crisis Federal reforms gave most routes and air mail contracts to big aviation holding companies. Small, independent airlines complained this was unfair, even though most had sold their own contracts and some did not even exist when the law was passed. The independents fought to break the holding companies’ power. Their efforts led to congressional hearings and unfounded charges of corruption and conspiracy to monopolize the air mail. Responding to political pressure, President Franklin Roosevelt canceled all domestic air mail contracts on February 9, 1934, and ordered the Army Air Corps to fly the mail. In February 1934, the Air Corps began carrying the mail. Flying in the worst winter in decades, in ill-equipped aircraft, Air Corps pilots suffered a series of well-publicized accidents. Several pilots died. Public outcry caused President Roosevelt to suspend the Air Corps’ mail service until improvements could be made. Thomas Braniff led the fight by independent airlines to break the power of the airline holding companies that dominated air transportation in the 1930s. War hero and American Airways vice president Eddie Rickenbacker condemned the air mail crisis as “legalized murder” after several Air Corps pilots died. Charles Lindbergh testified before Congress, criticizing President Roosevelt for hastily canceling the air mail contracts and punishing the airlines without due process. The Air Mail Act of 1934 Four months after the air mail crisis began, Congress passed the Air Mail Act. It cut payment rates to airlines, returned most air mail routes to the major airlines, and gave some routes to smaller airlines. It divided regulation among the Post Office, Commerce Department, and Interstate Commerce Commission. Aviation holding companies were dissolved and airlines separated from aircraft manufacturers. Previous air mail contractors had to change their names or restructure. American Airways became American Airlines. Eastern Air Transport became Eastern Air Lines. Punished Without a Trial The Air Mail Act of 1934 broke up the large aviation holding companies and forced the firing of airline executives wrongfully accused of conspiring to monopolize the air mail. One victim was Philip G. Johnson of United Air Lines. Like many others, Johnson had attended Walter Brown’s operators’ conferences in 1930, in which air mail contracts and routes had been legally awarded. Ironically, United received no contracts during these so-called “Spoils Conferences.” Nevertheless, Johnson and many others were wrongfully—and unconstitutionally—barred from the airline industry without the benefit of a trial. 14 / 43
The Triumph of Technology Airlines faced tough times in the mid-1930s. The federal government had broken up the large, dominating companies and cut subsidies. Aviation regulation was in a state of confusion. How could they survive? Airlines needed bigger, better, and faster airplanes to profitably fly passengers as well as mail. New navigation and communications equipment was also required to enhance safety and efficiency. The aviation industry responded with modern, high-performance airliners taking to the air. Boeing 247 The government provided bonuses to airlines for equipment that improved safety or speed. These innovations included two-way radios and aircraft with night-flying capabilities or multiple engines. The first aircraft produced under these terms was the Boeing 247 in 1933, the world’s first modern airliner. It could carry 10 passengers, fly 50% faster than the Ford Tri-Motor, and cross the country in less than 20 hours. Douglas DC-2 TWA needed an airplane to compete with United’s new Boeing 247s. Douglas Aircraft responded with the DC-1, which was faster, more comfortable and could carry 12 passengers. Stretched to seat 14 and redesignated the DC-2, it easily surpassed its competition. Douglas went on to dominate airliner production until the jet age. Douglas DC-3 At the request of American Airlines, Douglas created a larger version of the DC-2 with sleeping berths called the Douglas Sleeper Transport. The daytime version became the famous DC-3. The 21-passenger DC-3 became the first airliner that could make a profit without subsidy, and it helped airlines survive cutbacks in government assistance. Boeing 307 The Boeing 307 Stratoliner was the world’s first pressurized airliner. While other airliners flew no higher than about 10,000 feet (3,000 meters), the Stratoliner could cruise at 25,000 feet (7,500 meters). By ascending “above the weather,” it could fly faster and more efficiently and provide its 33 passengers a smoother and quieter ride. See a Stratoliner, Pan American’s Clipper Flying Cloud, at the Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia. Because of the onset of World War II and the development of improved designs, only 10 Stratoliners were built. What Does “Above the Weather” Mean? When an airplane flies “above the weather,” it’s flying higher than storms and clouds, where the airstream is smoother. Object Highlight: Douglas Sleeper Transport Model American Airlines introduced the Douglas Sleeper Transport in 1936. The remarkable aircraft took fewer than 16 hours to fly from Los Angeles to New York, and its sleeping accommodations made the flight quite bearable. Even with sleeper service, ticket prices remained fixed at $160 one way and $288 round trip. Object Highlight: Boeing 307 Stratoliner Model The Stratoliner was based on Boeing’s B-17 bomber design, and its pressurized fuselage on the Army Air Corps’ Lockheed XC 35. The Stratoliner pioneered the pressurization technology that made modern air travel practical. Object Highlight: “Flying the Beam” Board Game Parker Brothers introduced Flying the Beam in 1941, based on the new radio range system for pilots flying in “blind” conditions. The object of the game was to be the first to land safely at the airport. Playing pieces were rubber DC-3s. Here’s how the system worked:
In the 1920s, how could aircraft fly reliably and safely at night and in bad weather? The first low-frequency radio range beacon experiments were conducted along National Air Transport’s New York–Chicago route. By February 1931, the entire New York–San Francisco route was equipped with radio range stations. Object Highlight: Radio Transmitter This was the first lightweight radio transmitter built for use on aircraft. It featured a loop antenna, which could be turned to find the signal direction. It replaced traditional visual dead-reckoning navigation methods. The transmitter was designed and built by Hugo Leuteritz of Pan American. It enabled aircraft to navigate accurately along Pan Am’s first route, between Key West, Florida, and Havana, Cuba, in 1928. Leuteritz designed other devices that allowed Pan American aircraft to navigate safely throughout the Caribbean and across the Pacific and Atlantic. Object Highlight: Automatic Direction Finder Automatic direction finders (ADF) were first installed on aircraft in the mid-1930s. Developed by the Sperry Gyroscope Company, they replaced the existing four-course radio range system. Displayed here are the control unit and indicator, with the loop antenna in its streamlined housing. The ADF locates known stationary radio transmitters and displays the radio’s location relative to the aircraft. This was a much more flexible and accurate system. It also led to instrument approaches for landing, which helped pilots locate runways at night and in bad weather. Most aircraft built in the late 1930s and 1940s, including the Douglas DC-3 above, were equipped with ADF. Object Highlight: ARC Model D Receiver The ARC Model D was the first commercial navigation receiver. Designed by the Aircraft Radio Corporation in 1929, it pioneered the use of the four-course radio range system. Air Traffic Control As the popularity of air travel grew, so did the need for better air traffic control along the nation’s air routes and especially around airports. Airlines first developed systems to control their own air traffic. However, several highly publicized accidents in the mid-1930s highlighted the critical need for a national system. New Mexico Senator Bronson Cutting was among those killed in these crashes. The federal government stepped in, and in 1936 the Commerce Department accepted nationwide responsibility for air traffic control. In December 1935, the airlines established the first Airway Traffic Control Center at Newark, New Jersey. Two more soon opened at Cleveland and Chicago. The Department of Commerce took over their operation in 1936. Within a year, eight centers were in full operation coast-to-coast. An airway modernization program was launched in 1938. Airport control towers, such as this one in Cleveland, became a familiar sight. In November 1941, with World War II sweeping through Europe and Asia, the federal government assumed responsibility for all towers deemed vital to the war effort. 15 / 43
The Modern Airport When you think of an airport today, it seems obvious that airplanes need runways to take off and land regularly. But ground facilities had to develop along with the aviation system. Open fields and parade grounds were unsuitable for commercial aviation. Without a network of adequate airports, an air transportation system was not possible. As aircraft became bigger and passenger numbers rose, airports evolved to keep up. Airfields grew larger and grass gave way to pavement. Terminal buildings grew from simple structures to architectural statements of modernity. By 1940, the modern airport came into being. Object Highlight: Megaphone Noise was a problem in early airliners. To communicate with passengers, cabin crew often had to resort to speaking through small megaphones to be heard above the din of the engines and the wind. The noise in a typical Ford Tri-Motor during takeoff was nearly 120 decibels, loud enough to cause permanent hearing loss. Yesterday's Airports of Tomorrow Today’s airports are mostly similar but, in the past, airport designers had some intriguing ideas for the future of air travel. From underground airports to floating fields in the ocean, these are some of their most radical concepts. Dressing the Part: Airline Uniforms Distinctive airline uniforms promoted the prestige and allure of aviation staff. By the early 1930s, pilots wore military-style uniforms to reflect their status. Pan American emulated luxurious ocean liner service by calling its pilots “captains,” and dressing its crews in naval-style uniforms. The white hats and navy-blue, double-breasted jackets complemented the rank insignia on the sleeve cuffs. Other airlines followed. Many of these customs continue today. While Pan Am and other airlines employed men as stewards, Boeing Air Transport introduced the first women stewards. Ships of the Air Pan American was the first airline to use nautical terms. Words like “captain” and “stewards” attracted customers used to luxury ship travel. Pan Am aircraft were called “Clippers,” in honor of the graceful clipper ships that sailed the oceans in the early 19th century. Diverse Stories: Ellen Church The First Stewardess A nurse from Iowa, Ellen Church wanted to become an airline pilot but realized that wasn’t possible for a woman in her day. So in 1930 she approached Steve Stimpson at Boeing Air Transport with the novel idea of placing nurses aboard airliners. She convinced him that the presence of women nurses would help relieve the traveling public’s fear of flying. Church developed the job description and training program for the first stewardesses. Church first flew as a stewardess between Oakland and Chicago. She had only served for 18 months when an automobile accident grounded her. After her recovery, she completed her college degree and returned to nursing. Object Highlight: American Airlines “Flagship Fleet” Pennant To evoke the comfort and ease of ocean liner travel, American Airlines called its airplanes “flagships.” Each flagship Douglas DC-3 flew a large pennant from its cockpit when taxiing, before both takeoff and after landing. Shown here is a smaller souvenir pennant that passengers could purchase. American’s early frequent flyer plan underscored the nautical theme: frequent passengers were designated “Admirals.” They received access to comfortable airport lounges and other benefits. Competing airlines soon followed suit. Object Highlights: Uniforms Pilot Uniform, Transcontinental and Western Air, 1931 Until the late 1920s, pilots flew in open-cockpit aircraft and were clad in flying suits, helmets, and goggles. With the introduction of enclosed cockpits, pilots could swap their protective gear for clothing such as this TWA pilot’s uniform. Stewardess Uniform, American Airlines, 1936-37 Alice Lambert wore this uniform while flying on Curtiss Condors and Douglas DC-2s and DC-3s for American Airlines. Following the nautical theme started by Pan Am, American called its airplanes “flagships,” a term that appears on the left sleeve. The First Stewardess Uniform, Boeing Air Transport, 1930 (replica) The first stewardess uniform was made of dark green wool with a matching green and gray wool cape. United Air Lines made this replica and donated it in commemoration of Ellen Church, the first stewardess, and the rest of United’s “Original Eight” female flight attendants. Stewardess Uniform. Transcontinental and Western Air, 1935 In 1935, Thelma Jean Harman became the first stewardess for TWA She wore this summer uniform while flying aboard Ford Tri-Motors along TWA’s “Lindbergh Line” from New York to Los Angeles. The stewardess badge on her coat was a later addition to the uniform. Steward Uniform, Eastern Air Lines, ca. 1938 Following the maritime tradition of male stewards, Eastern Air Lines issued this distinctive uniform for its cabin staff. John Brisendine wore this uniform while serving aboard DC-3s in the late 1930s. The three red stripes denote his three years of service. Eastern was one of the last major carriers to introduce stewardesses, and then only when World War II thinned its male staff. Object Highlight: Chewing Gum Dispenser, 1938 To ease pressure on passengers’ ears during climb and descent, stewards on Eastern Air Lines’ flights in the late 1930s offered chewing gum from elegant polished steel dispensers. Why Do Your Ears Hurt? Your eardrum stretches in or out from air pressure changes during takeoff and landing. Yawning or swallowing relieves the pressure behind your eardrum by filling the EustachianTube with air. Chewing gum helps you produce saliva to swallow, but you don’t really need the gum! 16 / 43
What Was It Like to Fly? Despite the airlines’ cheerful advertising, early commercial travel was loud, unsettling, and expensive. Passenger planes, or airliners, were not pressurized, so they flew at low altitudes and were often bounced about by wind and weather. Air sickness was common. Airlines provided many amenities to ease passenger stress, but air travel remained a rigorous adventure well into the 1940s. Only business travelers and the wealthy could afford to fly. But despite the expense and discomforts, each year thousands of new passengers climbed aboard to experience the advantages and adventure of flight. Who Flew? Flying was very expensive. Only business travelers and the wealthy could afford to fly. A coast-to-coast round trip cost around $260, about half of the price of a new automobile. Yet, America’s airline industry expanded rapidly, from carrying only 6,000 passengers in 1930, to more than 450,000 by 1934, to 1.2 million by 1938. Still, only a tiny fraction of the traveling public flew. Most people still rode trains or buses for intercity travel. Flying Politicians Flying grew increasingly popular with politicians in the 1930s, as the advantages of fast travel outweighed the real and perceived hazards. Flying Stars Air travel was popular with Hollywood celebrities, but their employers thought it too risky. Film studios often put clauses in actors’ contracts prohibiting them from flying, especially while filming a movie. But by the mid-1930s, the studios realized this rule was impossible to enforce. They also recognized the economic value of flying stars around the country to promote their movies. Airlines got free publicity when celebrities flew. It was no coincidence that an airline’s name was featured in the photograph when a celebrity’s arrival was captured on film. Diverse Stories: Herbert R. Ekins Around the World in 18 Days On September 30, 1936, Herbert R. Ekins, a reporter for the New York World-Telegram, set out to travel around the world by air using only regularly scheduled airlines. He wanted to set a new speed record and to demonstrate the progress of commercial air travel. His adventure became a race when two rival newspapers sent reporters to challenge him. Jet Lag Before the Jet The speed of air travel made Ekins feel disoriented. Years before the first jet airplane, Ekins was experiencing what today we call “jet lag.” Ekins’ Tips for Air Travelers
Where Do You Want To Go Today? How Do You Want To Travel? In the 1930s, only businessmen and wealthy travelers could afford to fly. Yet even many of them were apprehensive about this new form of travel. Airline advertisements emphasized speed, comfort, and, above all, safety. But were these enticing ads entirely accurate? Like today, travelers had to weigh the pros and cons of the available travel options. Pan American Airways Pan American became the dominant U.S. international airline. Its famous “Clippers” flew to Latin America and crossed the Atlantic and Pacific. Founded in 1927, Pan American opened regular commercial service throughout Latin America using both flying boats and landplanes. In 1935, founder Juan T. Trippe introduced the first regularly scheduled transpacific service with the famous Martin M-130 China Clipper. He opened regular transatlantic service in 1939 with the Boeing 314 flying boat. Pan American was barred from domestic routes in return for exclusive rights to international routes. Its overseas monopoly lasted until World War II, and its domestic restriction until 1978. Ships of the Air Pan Am’s “Clippers” were named in tribute to the clipper ships of the China tea trade in the 1850s, the fastest sailing ships of their day. Diverse Stories: Juan T. Trippe For over 40 years, Pan American was the embodiment of its dynamic founder and president, Juan T. Trippe. Pan American World Airways blazed routes across Latin America, the Pacific, and the Atlantic. During the 1930s, he inspired the famous “Clipper” series of Sikorsky, Martin, and Boeing flying boats. In the 1940s, he bought the pressurized Boeing 307 and Lockheed Constellation and opened the first around-the-world service. In the 1950s, Trippe introduced the jetliner to America, sponsoring both the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8. Before he retired in 1968, Trippe again set the pace as the launch customer for the revolutionary wide-body Boeing 747. Pan Am struggled after Trippe retired and the industry was deregulated. It ceased operations in 1991. Object Highlight: Sikorsky S-40 Model Igor Sikorsky created the S-40 for Pan Am’s Caribbean routes. Sikorsky was an innova¬tive Russian aircraft designer who emigrated to the United States. Charles Lindbergh advised Pan Am on the layout of the S-40. He also piloted the airplane on its first commercial flight, from Miami to the Canal Zone in 1931. Sikorsky S-42 Model The efficient S-42 cut passengers’ travel time between Miami and Buenos Aires, Argentina. More significantly, Pan Am used improved S-42s to survey its proposed routes across the Pacific in 1935 and the Atlantic in 1937. Martin M-130 Model The Martin M-130 was larger and had greater range than the Sikorsky S-42. It could fly passengers and cargo between San Francisco and Hawaii, the longest nonstop route in the world, without an emergency landing point en route. The airplane typically carried no more than 12 passengers. Only three were built. Boeing 314 Model Pan Am president Juan Trippe ordered the Boeing 314 flying boat in 1936 for the planned transatlantic route. The aircraft had a maximum range of 3,500 miles (5,700 kilometers) with up to 40 passengers and a crew of 10. Object Highlight: Juan Trippe's Globe From his office in New York City, Pan American president Juan T. Trippe used this globe to plan his airline’s expansion around the world. Trippe often would stretch a string between two points on the globe and calculate the distance and time it would take to fly between them. Made in the mid-1800s, this globe was featured prominently in many publicity photographs of Trippe. It became part of Pan Am’s and Trippe’s public image. Object Highlight: Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp Designed in 1930, the 14-cylinder, 800-horsepower Twin Wasp engine was first used on the Martin M-130 China Clipper. This aircraft opened transpacific commercial service in 1935 for Pan American Airways. United Air Lines installed 1,000-horsepower Twin Wasps in its Douglas DC-3As, which began service in 1937. The engine displayed here is the 1,200-horsepower R-1830-92 military version, the most widely used Twin Wasp in the DC-3 series. More than 173,000 Twin Wasp engines were manufactured, more than any other large aircraft engine. Object Highlight: Propeller from the China Clipper This Hamilton Standard variable-pitch propeller belonged to the famous Martin M-130 flying boat China Clipper. The blade’s angle could be adjusted for optimum performance during takeoff and cruise, greatly increasing the aircraft’s efficiency. The China Clipper The China Clipper was the name of one of three Martin M-130 flying boats built for Pan American Airways. The others were the Hawaii Clipper and the Philippine Clipper. In 1935, the Martin M-130 became the first airliner that could fly nonstop the 2,400-mile (3,840-kilometer) distance between San Francisco and Honolulu, Hawaii. This was the longest major route in the world without an emergency intermediate landing field. The China Clipper and its sister ships demonstrated that there were no technological barriers to transoceanic travel. Why Flying Boats? Flying boats became popular in the 1930s because they didn’t have to contend with the rough state of early airfields. They could also alight on water in emergencies. This calmed the fears of passengers flying long distances over oceans. They could also be made larger and heavier than other airliners, because they were not restricted by the short length of airfields. Most of Pan American’s Latin American destinations were along coasts, so flying boats were a logical choice. Each Clipper flew a total of 60 hours over a six-day span, with stops at Midway, Wake, and Guam islands, where Pan Am constructed its own hotels and facilities. Few could afford the $799 one-way fare, so the M-130s usually carried no more than eight passengers, and often fewer. 17 / 43
Making the Modern Airliner In the United States, aeronautical research was led by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), a government agency formed in 1915. The NACA was largely responsible for developing many technologies that led to the creation of modern airliners. The NACA was the predecessor to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). A revolutionary new generation of airliners began appearing in the early 1930s. Fast and efficient, they featured all-metal construction and numerous features that increased speed and range, while increasing the weight they could carry. The first of these modern airliners was the Boeing 247, one of which hangs above you. Research: NACA Wind Tunnels Wind tunnels were the primary research tools of aeronautical engineers. The NACA built four innovative tunnels at their Langley Aeronautical Laboratory in Virginia from 1927 to 1939, which led to breakthroughs in aircraft design. Diverse Stories: John K. "Jack" Northrop After John K. “Jack” Northrop designed the famous Vega series of high-performance aircraft, he left Lockheed Aircraft in 1928 to start the Avion company for producing metal aircraft. His first design was the Northrop Alpha, which blended a strong, lightweight, cantilevered, stressed-skin wing with a hollow, metal, shell-like monocoque (MON-ah-cock) fuselage. The Alpha so impressed William Boeing that he bought Avion. Jack Northrop’s fervent advocacy of all-metal monocoque aircraft had a lasting impact on U.S. aircraft designs, while his development of the multicellular wing design was instrumental in the succes of the Douglas DC series of airliners. The NACA's Legacy Today Airfoils NACA engineers developed many new families of wing cross sections, called airfoils. These were used to design most American and many foreign aircraft. Research on high-speed airfoils also reshaped the design of aircraft propellers. Cowlings The NACA’s most important contribution to the modern airliner was the engine cowl. Enveloping the front of an engine, it increased aircraft speed by smoothing the airflow over the cylinders. It also allowed for better engine cooling. For producing the first practical full-cowl design [above], the NACA received the prestigious Collier Trophy in 1929, an award recognizing aviation excellence. Engine Placement NACA research showed that locating engines directly in front of the wing, with the propellers far in front of the wing’s leading edge, reduced drag and enhanced lift and engine efficiency. The gains proved so great that aircraft designers could eliminate nose-mounted engines on multi-engine aircraft. Publications The NACA shared the results of its own and other research through publications. This information profoundly influenced American aviation technology. It inspired many changes to civil and military aircraft, from flush rivets, tighter construction tolerances, and retractable landing gear, to overall fuselage and wing designs. What Makes an Airliner "Modern"? Cantilevered Wing This wing is supported by internal structures and free from any external bracing. Although heavier than externally braced wings, a cantilevered wing has much less drag. Monocoque (Stressed-Skin) Construction A structural design in which the skin carries some or all of the airframe weight without using internal cross braces. A monocoque (MON-ah-cock) fuselage is light but strong and allows more room for passengers or payload. Metal Construction Metal aircraft did not become practical until the mid-1920s, when two methods to protect aluminum alloys from corrosion were developed. The first was anodizing alloys with a protective oxide coating (used on the Boeing 247). The second was bonding pure, corrosion-resistant aluminum to the surface of aluminum alloys, known as Alclad (used on the Douglas DC-3 and Northrop Alpha). Variable-Pitch Propeller When a propeller’s pitch can be adjusted in flight, it can maintain the most efficient angle relative to the airflow as the airspeed changes. This shortened the Boeing 247’s takeoff distance by 25% and greatly improved its high-altitude performance. Reliable Engine with NACA Cowling Many new technologies reduced drag but made airframes heavier. The increased power of air-cooled radial engines built for the military helped offset these weight gains. The NACA cowling reduced the drag these engines created. Retractable Landing Gear Although heavier than fixed gear, retractable landing gear greatly reduces drag and improves an aircraft’s speed and efficiency. 18 / 43
Section 3: The Heyday of Propeller Airliners, 1941-1958 Air transportation changed dramatically during and after World War II. Faster flights and cheaper fares opened up air travel to an increasing number of people. A growing demand for more flights required technological solutions for navigation and air traffic control. New technology also led to the advanced piston engines of this era. Meanwhile, regulated by the federal government, the industry remained dominated by a few large airlines. Passengers found a safer and more comfortable flying experience. In 1955, for the first time, more people in the United States traveled by air than by train. By 1957, airliners had replaced ocean liners as the preferred means of crossing the Atlantic. Object Highlight: Douglas DC-7 The Douglas DC-7 was the first airliner to provide nonstop transcontinental service in both directions. American Airlines introduced the DC-7 on its New York–Los Angeles route in November 1953. It was also the fastest transport aircraft in service, cruising at 360 mph (579 km/h). Eighteen different airlines purchased a total of 338 DC-7s. The DC-7 was an advanced development of the DC-6B piston-engine airliner. Like other piston-engine airliners, it was eventually made obsolete by the introduction of turbine-engine Boeing 707s and Douglas DC-8s. Some DC-7s later served as cargo and charter planes. This nose section is from American Airlines’ Flagship Vermont, which carried about 130,000 passengers in its nearly 13,500 hours aloft. 19 / 43
World War II and the Airlines Airlines helped further the war effort during World War II. Plans for their wartime mobilization had been drafted in 1937 by the industry’s Air Transport Association. When the United States entered World War II four years later, the plan was easily put into action. The airlines immediately began working with the military. The Air Transport Command (ATC) was formed in 1942 as a U.S. Army Air Forces unit. It coordinated the transport of aircraft, cargo, and personnel throughout the country and around the world. During the war, casual air travel virtually ceased in the United States. Only those serving the war effort flew. As a result, aircraft flew more than 80% full, about 20% more than before the war. The Air Transport Command contracted with airlines to fly wherever they were needed. Pan American’s vast overseas experience became an especially valuable asset. But to Pan Am’s eventual dismay, other airlines also received overseas routes. Diverse Stories: L. Welch Pogue At the 1944 Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, the Allies drew up plans for post-war civil aviation. They created an organization to set and regulate safety standards as part of the United Nations. L. Welch Pogue, chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board, was instrumental in drafting the “Five Freedoms of the Air,” with rules for international air space and landing rights. Pogue also helped shape the Bermuda Agreement of 1946, which detailed routes, rates, and air rights between the United States and Great Britain. After retiring from his law practice, Pogue served as a docent at this Museum. He died in 2003 at the age of 103. First President to Fly Franklin Roosevelt was the first president to fly while in office. He flew to the 1943 Casablanca Conference in Morocco to plan the Allies’ European strategy in World War II. The threat from submarines made air travel the preferred mode of transportation. 20 / 43
Post-War Revival and Regulation After World War II, passenger travel surged to new levels. Federal regulatory agencies reorganized to manage the rapidly growing airline industry. When wartime travel restrictions ended, airlines were overwhelmed with passengers. New carriers emerged, and new technology began to revolutionize civil aviation. Through the new Civil Aeronautics Board, and later the Federal Aviation Agency, the U.S. government worked to ensure safety and fair competition. Air Mail Subsidies End With revenues on the rise and new, more efficient airliners in the air, airlines no longer needed economic support. In 1952, the government ended its decades-old subsidy for flying the mail. While air mail remained a valuable source of income, airlines no longer needed it to survive. The Civil Aeronautics Board The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) was created in 1940 from the Civil Aeronautics Authority. It would set airline fares and routes for four decades. The CAB favored a system anchored by a few large, well-financed airlines—United, American, Eastern, and TWA—with several regional airlines flying north‒south routes. Limited competition ensured stability and allowed the CAB to control the young industry’s growth. The Federal Aviation Agency The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) was created in 1940 from the Civil Aeronautics Authority. It would set airline fares and routes for four decades. The CAB favored a system anchored by a few large, well-financed airlines—United, American, Eastern, and TWA—with several regional airlines flying north‒south routes. Limited competition ensured stability and allowed the CAB to control the young industry’s growth. The FAA and Air Travel The FAA is mainly responsible for the advancement, safety, and regulation of air travel. It also watches over the development of air traffic control systems and commercial space travel. Object Highlights: Civil Aeronautics Board Flag and Seal The five-member Civil Aeronautics Board rendered their decisions under this flag and seal. The CAB closed its doors in 1985 after the airline industry was deregulated. Object Highlights: Uniforms Air Transport Command Uniform Most of the airliners drafted for the war effort were placed under the control of the Air Transport Command (ATC), which was formed in June 1942. The ATC functioned as an enormous international airline. It combined the efforts of the Ferry Command, which moved combat aircraft around the world, and the Air Service Command, which moved cargo and personnel. The ATC was organized by Gen. Robert Olds and later Gen. Harold George. They benefited immensely from the experience of Maj. Gen. C. R. Smith of American Airlines, who served as executive officer, and hundreds of other former airline employees. Flight Attendant Uniform, Continental Airlines, early 1940s Jean Begley Bluestein wore this uniform while flying on Continental DC-3s. 21 / 43
The First "Fare Wars" Ticket prices dropped after World War II. Competition in the industry brought discount fares and larger, more profitable planes. New airlines operating on a nonscheduled basis offered the first discount fares, undermining the government’s regulated airfare system. Around the same time, aircraft manufacturers introduced a new generation of large, four-engine airliners. These soon dominated U.S. and international air travel and helped lower fares. Skirting the Schedules Scores of new airlines emerged after World War II. They seriously challenged the Civil Aeronautics Board’s efforts to limit competition on transcontinental routes. These nonscheduled airlines, or “non-skeds,” carried cargo and passengers on irregular or charter services. By combining their resources, some non-skeds were able to offer transcontinental service at discount fares, which other airlines were forced to match. This brief episode fore¬shadowed the turbulent competition to come in the late 1970s, when the government deregulated the airline industry. North American Airlines Several “non-skeds” pooled their resources to create North American Airlines in 1950. When NAA offered daily, low-fare Los Angeles–New York service, other airlines followed, and profited from their own low-cost service. But pressure from the major airlines caused the CAB to close down NAA in 1955. After the CAB closed down North American Airlines, it changed the “non-sked” designation to “supplemental.” Under this designation, the charter business flourished. World, Trans International, Overseas National, Transocean, Standard, Saturn, Capitol, and other carriers provided cargo and passenger service for tour operators and the military. Capital Airlines Reacting to competition from nonscheduled airlines, Capital Airlines in 1948 introduced the first coach fares. Although approved reluctantly by the CAB, these lower fares immediately became popular and expanded the market to more people. Traveling by Coach A “coach” was originally a horse-drawn carriage designed for carrying more than one passenger. The word comes from the Hungarian town of Kocs (pronounced “coach”), a place where well-designed coaches were built. When coaches were adapted for railroads, the term stuck. The airlines borrowed the term to use for coach class, the least expensive seats. Freight-Service Airlines After World War II, many freight-service airlines arose and prospered, using surplus Douglas C-47 transports. Returning veterans eager to continue flying formed such airlines as Flying Tigers, Slick, Airlift, and Seaboard World. A New Generation of Airliners The new four-engine airplanes introduced after World War II were built for the profitable cross-country routes. They carried far more people at greater speeds, with unprecedented comfort for passengers and unprecedented profits for airlines. As a result, competition increased and fares fell, opening up air travel to even more people. Sleek, powerful, and graceful, TWA’s Lockheed Constellations introduced pressurized comfort, and shortened cross-country travel by an astounding five hours. Eastern began flying the “stretched” 71-seat Super Constellation in 1951, which had greater range and capacity. Northwest Orient and TWA also flew Super Constellations. Stairway in the Sky A unique feature of the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser was its lower-level lounge and bar, reached by a spiral staircase. Boeing used the same staircase design in the 747 jumbo jet on display in this exhibition to connect the main cabin with the upper deck. Object Highlights: Uniforms Captain Uniform, Eastern Airlines, circa 1940s Capt. L. C. Cloney wore this uniform while flying Eastern Airlines’ Constella¬tions. Eastern rose to national prominence under the leadership of Eddie Rickenbacker, America’s premier ace during World War I. Eastern Airlines dominated air travel in the East and Southeast for many years after World War II. Flight Attendant Uniform, United Air Lines, 1946 Flight attendants wore this uniform while serving aboard United DC-4s just after World War II. Douglas DC-4 In 1946, the Douglas DC-4 introduced four-engine safety and comfort. The unpressurized aircraft could carry 44 passengers. A trip on United from New York to San Francisco took 16 hours with a stop at Chicago. The round-trip fare of $236.60 was 26% less than prewar fares. Douglas DC-6 The DC-6 was Douglas Aircraft’s response to Lockheed’s Constellation. Pressurized like the “Connie,” the DC-6 carried 60 passengers and had wing heaters to prevent icing. United introduced the DC-6 in 1947 and, after overcoming some initial problems, it became widely used. Douglas DC-6B The Douglas DC-6B combined unrivalled operating efficiency and reliability. Its slightly stretched fuselage could carry 88 passen¬gers. Perhaps the epitome of piston-engine airliner design, DC-6Bs entered service with United in 1952. Pan Am used them to pioneer tourist fares across the Atlantic. Douglas DC-7 The DC-7 was the first airliner to provide nonstop, cross-country service in both directions. American began flying the DC-7 on its New York–Los Angeles route in November 1953. It carried 60 passengers between the two cities in less than 8 hours. The cost was $158.85. This is the DC-7 Flagship Missouri, a sister ship to the Museum’s Flagship Vermont. Object Highlight: Lockheed Constellation Model TWA began flying “Connies” in 1946 on the same day United introduced its unpressurized DC-4s. TWA matched United’s fare but added $25 for the Constellation’s “Advanced Sky Chief” service. TWA’s fast, pressurized Constellations could fly from New York to Los Angeles in 11 hours with one fuel stop. That was five hours faster than United’s DC-4s on its New York–San Francisco route. The Museum's Constellation is on display at the Steve F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia. Boeing 377 Stratocruiser Although not economically successful, the huge Boeing 377 Stratocruiser epitomized luxury air travel in the 1950s. The 377 was based on the design of Boeing’s B-29 bomber of World War II. It had a bulbous “double bubble” pressurized fuselage and could carry 100 passengers. Northwest, Pan Am, United, and American Overseas Airlines all flew Stratocruisers. 22 / 43
New Technologies Fuel the Boom Years New Technologies Fuel the Boom YearsIn the post-war boom years of the 1950s, the modern aircraft and airline systems familiar to us today began to take shape. Propeller-driven airliners were enjoying their “golden age,” but engineers were already moving forward. Aeronautical research mostly conducted for the military would lead to a new class of high-speed passenger planes. Meanwhile, dramatic increases in air travel required better airports and air traffic control. New electronic technologies produced solutions for managing air traffic and communications. By the end of the 1950s, the aviation infrastructure in the United States had grown intricate and highly advanced. Radar and Precision-Landing Systems “Radio detecting and ranging,” commonly called radar, was developed by the British in the 1930s and widely used during World War II. By war’s end, two precision-landing systems were available for civil use:
The Instrument Landing System (ILS) became the primary landing aid in 1947. With ILS, a pilot relied on instruments that received altitude and direction data via radio transmissions. The pilot then followed a glide path to the runway. ILS greatly reduced missed approaches and flight cancellations due to weather. It also enabled airports to handle more traffic. This system was supplemented by radar-based GCA at busy airports. “Operation Vittles” Ground Controlled Approach was critical to the Berlin Airlift in 1948–49. The Soviets had blockaded ground transport into Allied-controlled West Berlin. Military and civilian aircraft brought food and supplies past theblockade, landing every three minutes, around the clock, for almost a year. The U.S. Air Force’s codename for the Berlin Airlift was “Operation Vittles.” It delivered over 2.3 million tons (2 billion kilograms) of food and coal to keep Berlin residents fed and warm. That’s equal to the weight of just over 28 Washington Monuments! Growing Pains and Growing Concerns A series of airplane accidents over five months in 1951–52 aroused public concern. Although not related to air traffic control, the accidents prompted new discussions on safety and traffic control, and hastened the development of improved technologies. Still, in 1956, two airplanes collided over the Grand Canyon. Two more midair collisions occurred in 1958 and another in 1960. These events led to legislation that supported corrective measures. Long-Range Radar In the 1950s, the Civil Aeronautics Administration, working with the Air Force, began installing long-range radars. They each had a radius of 200 miles (322 kilometers). A network of overlapping radars was completed by 1965. It could continuously monitor aircraft in controlled airspace. From “Jet Way” to “jetway” The upsurge in air travel led to the development of modern airports. Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport introduced the first “air bridges.” Better known by the brand name “Jet Way,” they provided sheltered passage between a terminal and plane and improved aircraft turnaround times. Today, the sheltered passage between a terminal and plane is called a jetway. It’s an example of a trade name (Jet Way) that became a generic term. Object Highlight: Wright R-3350 Turbo Compound Engine One of the most powerful piston engines ever built, the Wright R-3350 Turbo Compound produced 3,400 horsepower in its ultimate version. Based on the engine that powered the Boeing B-29 bomber of World War II, the R-3350 was installed on Lockheed Constellations and Douglas DC-7s. The more powerful Turbo Compound version of the R-3350 routed exhaust gases through an impeller, which helped turn the crankshaft and gave the engine a 20% boost. However, the complexity of the system resulted in service reliability problems that reduced aircraft productivity. 23 / 43
International Service Pan American Airways was the nation’s sole international airline before World War II. After the war, other U.S. airlines were allowed to open international routes. During the war, Pan Am helped build a worldwide network of paved runways. This allowed the airline to replace its luxurious but inefficient flying boats with four-engine landplanes. Pan Am also gained experience delivering high-priority passengers and cargo. However, Presidents Roosevelt and Truman both felt that having several overseas airlines was best for the country. So after the war, the Civil Aeronautics Board ended Pan Am’s monopoly. In the early 1940s, Pan American used the Barreiras airport in the Brazilian interior to save two days of travel time between Miami and Rio de Janeiro. Using Douglas DC-3s and Boeing 307s, Pan Am no longer had to fly the longer route along the Atlantic coast. New Competition for Pan Am Transconti¬nental and Western Air quickly became a serious competitor to Pan Am’s international business. It boasted a well-developed domestic network and proven record of overseas war service. To reflect the airline’s new international status, majority shareholder Howard Hughes changed the airline’s name to Trans World Airlines (TWA). Diverse Stories: Howard Hughes Millionaire businessman, movie producer, and famed aviator Howard Hughes gained control of Transcontinental and Western Air in 1939 at the suggestion of his childhood acquaintance and TWA president Jack Frey. Hughes turned TWA into an important international air carrier and was responsible for introducing the revolutionary Boeing 307 Stratoliner and the Lockheed Constellation. Reflecting the airline’s greater status, Hughes changed its name to Trans World Airlines in 1950. Hughes remained in control until he was forced out in 1960. Object Highlight: Flight Insurance Vending Machine Although air travel had become quite safe, nervous flyers were given the option of buying additional travel insurance. Flight insurance, a form of life insurance, became so popular that vending machines were installed in airports around the country to dispense insurance policies. By the 1950s, inexpensive flight insurance was widely available through vending machines at most airports. 24 / 43
Air Travel and Segregation African Americans could choose to fly, but few did. Many airport facilities were segregated and discrimination was widespread. While the airlines were not legally segregated, airports often were. Throughout the South, inferior airport accommodations discouraged African Americans from flying. Until the Civil Rights movement began to bring about change, air travel remained mostly for whites. Efforts to desegregate airports began as early as 1948. U.S. Rep. Charles C. Diggs Jr. of Michigan supported a bill in Congress to desegregate federally owned Washington National Airport. The bill did not pass, but it encouraged others to take action. Few people of color flew as passengers before World War II. But as the economy rapidly expanded and the number of minority-owned businesses increased, more people of color, especially business travelers, began to fly. Others fought for the right to pilot commercial aircraft. In doing so, they often encountered discrimination. Diverse Stories: Marlon D. Green Race-based discrimination at the major airlines was successfully challenged only in 1965, when Marlon D. Green won a suit against Continental Airlines to become a pilot. His victory opened commercial aviation to all Americans. Desegregating Airports Washington National Airport, like many southern airports, discriminated against African Americans. Complaints to the airlines about discrimination proved fruitless. The airlines didn’t control the municipally owned airports they served and did not wish to get involved for fear of losing white customers. In December 1948, after a direct appeal to President Truman by a member of his Committee on Civil Rights, the airport’s restaurant was finally desegregated. Slowly through the 1960s, the other segregated airports followed suit, after succumbing to legal and political pressure. Diverse Stories: Perry H. Young Jr. and Ruth Carol Taylor Airlines wouldn’t employ African Americans as pilots or on-board flight crew up through the 1960s. The exceptions were Perry H. Young Jr. [left], who first flew helicopters for New York Airways in 1956, and Ruth Carol Taylor, who first served as a stewardess for Mohawk Airlines in 1958. Separate but Senseless Congressman Charles C. Diggs Jr. of Michigan disliked how African Americans were treated at airports throughout the South. He led a campaign to change this by writing to the presidents of the major airlines to ask for their support. Read about his experience as an African American traveling by plane in the 1950s. 25 / 43
At Your Service “Service fit for a king and queen,” American Airlines declared. United countered with their “Red Carpet service.” Airline advertising made sure passengers knew they would be treated well. As one American Airlines publication noted, “travel by air should be a time of leisure, a chance for you to escape humdrum worries.” Because the federal government regulated prices, airlines competed by offering amenities. Here are some examples of how airlines advertised their amenities: Smoke, If You Care To But please, cigarettes only, and only when the “No Smoking” sign is off. Non-smoking passengers are often offended by cigars and pipes. Because of special air conditioning, pipe and cigar smoking is permitted in the lounge of DC-6Bs only! Gourmet Meals . . . Hot, Fresh and Full of Flavor Here is deluxe meal service at its very best. All of the artistry of United’s own Continental chefs goes into the preparation of your full course “Red Carpet” meal. A Hand of Rummy at Six Miles a Minute At your seat, or in the lounge, you can relax with one of the scores of games and other special items aboard to help while the miles away. Writing kits and the latest periodicals are as close as the stewardess call button. Object Highlight: Douglas DC-7 Mainliner, United Air Lines Model Cutaway models like this illustrated the air travel experience to potential customers at a travel office. The passengers in the model were made slightly smaller in scale to make the plane look larger. Where Does It Go? Airplane bathroom waste goes into a storage tank in the airplane, which is pumped out after landing. If the tank gets full, there’s an overflow valve that discharges extra waste out of the aircraft—during flight. The chemicals used to treat the waste turn it blue, and the waste freezes during its fall to earth—the infamous “blue ice.” 26 / 43
Changes in the Wind Flight attendants challenged biased rules through the courts as social attitudes evolved. Flight attendants were one of the first groups to file a case under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which made biased hiring practices illegal. They argued for their rights as women and against age, race, and marriage restrictions. By 1967, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) had ruled against all of the airlines’ discriminatory hiring practices. This opened airline career opportunities to all Americans. Fighting Marriage Restrictions Braniff’s flight attendants pose in 1965. That year, Betty Green Bateman won a landmark grievance against the airline that eventually made the industry’s no-marriage policy illegal. Bateman had been fired after she married but the decision was overturned by arbitration under Title VII. This set a critical precedent that opened the door to remove marriage restrictions from other airlines. Removing Gender Bias Encouraged by Title VII, Celio Diaz, Jr., applied for a flight attendant job with Pan Am in 1967 but was rejected. Citing gender bias, he filed a lawsuit. Pan Am’s defense claimed that a woman’s femininity was a “bona fide occupational qualification” which excluded men. Diaz, father of two, won his case after a difficult four-year fight. A U.S. court of appeals ruled that a flight attendant’s job was to provide passenger safety, and had nothing to do with gender, allowing men to reenter the profession. Ironically, Diaz was no longer eligible for the job because of age restrictions, which were not thrown out until the late 1970s, but his case opened the doors to male flight attendants such as Eugene Harmond, shown here. Advancing Gay Rights During the 1930s, stewards were seen as stylish service professionals, many of whom were gay men. As flight attendants became mostly women in the 1950s, anti-gay attitudes reinforced restrictions that excluded gay men from the industry, fearing their presence would upset straight male passengers. The case Diaz v. Pan Am removed the hiring ban allowing thousands of straight and gay men to become flight attendants. What's in a Name? What we’ve called flight attendants over the years reflects how we’ve thought of them and who they could be. What was a flight attendant called in the 1920s? Steward. When these jobs were created, airlines borrowed the name from jobs held on passenger ships. Only white men could be hired. What name for flight attendant started in the 1930s? Stewardess. It started with Ellen Church, a nurse, who became the first female flight attendant in 1930. She successfully argued that a nurse onboard would calm people’s fears of flying. Who could be a flight attendant in the 1950s? Only young, attractive, unmarried, white women could be stewardesses, or “hostesses.” Airlines promoted a glamorous image of female flight attendants to attract male passengers. What name all but disappeared in the 1960s? Steward. By the 1950s, women dominated the profession. Sexist restrictions caused a large turnover of women, but airlines could pay them less than men, who tended to stay in their jobs longer. When did “flight attendant” come into common use? In the late 1970s. Following civil rights laws and societal changes, the gender-neutral “flight attendant” became preferred over the outdated “stewardess.” Breaking the Color Barrier Ruth Carol Taylor, a nurse, became the first African American flight attendant when she was hired by Mohawk Airlines in December 1957. Taylor had applied earlier for a job at TWA but was rejected. She filed a complaint with the New York State Commission Against Discrimination. Concurrently, New York State authorities persuaded Mohawk to hire women of color. Mohawk accepted 800 applications, from which Taylor was chosen. TWA, facing nine complaints, relented and hired Margaret Grant as their first African American flight attendant in 1958. Further hires by airlines were few until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Taylor’s career was brief. She was let go after six months when she married—a casualty of the industry’s discrimination against marriage which was still in frce. 27 / 43
Regional Service United, American, Eastern, and TWA dominated the major cross-country routes, while smaller airlines served specific areas of the country. Beyond the “big four” major carriers, a few other large airlines—Delta, Braniff, Western, Continental, and Northwest—provided service to particular regions. Federal regulators limited competition by preventing their territories from overlapping, except on heavily traveled routes. After 1955, a new category of smaller airlines providing local service gained official recognition. These regional airlines brought service to hundreds of small cities. Object Highlight: Uniforms Mechanic's Coat and Hat, Capital Airlines, 1940s Mechanics for Capital Airlines (formerly Pennsylvania Central) wore coats and coveralls while servicing their fleet of DC-3s and DC-4s. Flight Attendant Uniform, Colonial Airlines, 1950s Colonial Airlines broke with tradition in the early 1950s and began to serve alcoholic beverages on its New York–Bermuda flights. The rest of the industry quickly adopted this successful and profitable marketing tool. Celeste MacIvor wore this uniform as a Colonial flight attendant. Flight Attendant Uniform, Capital Airlines, 1955 Marcy Wetherbee wore this uniform while serving on Capital Airlines’ Vickers Viscount airliners. Flight Attendant Uniform Western Airlines, 1958 In operation since 1926, Western was the nation’s oldest airline. It flew mainly in California and the Southwest before merging with Delta in 1987. Nancy Birckhead wore this uniform while serving on Western’s Douglas and Convair airliners. First Officer Uniform Mohawk Airlines, 1950s A prominent local carrier in the 1940s and 1950s, Mohawk served New York State and the Northeast. First Officer Joseph Adamowicz wore this uniform while flying Mohawk DC-3s. Regional Airlines’ Aircraft After World War II, the airlines looked for a replacement for the venerable DC-3 on short-to-medium routes. American Airlines led the way by cooperating in the development of the Convair 240. The Martin 2 0 2, which first flew with Northwest, was designed to compete with the 240. Improved models followed. They helped fill the need for smaller airliners flying shorter routes for the regional airlines, as well as the larger airlines. MARTIN 4-0-4 The pressurized, 40-seat Convair 240 offered a new level of passenger comfort. It also increased productivity to American Airlines’ secondary routes. The 240 and its stretched 340 and 440 versions proved popular among major, secondary, and local-service airlines. MARTIN 2-0-2 The Martin 2-0-2 debuted in 1947 and featured a set of built-in stairs in the tail. This was helpful at small airports with little support equipment. However, serious technical flaws in the wing structure limited its usefulness. Redesigned with an improved wing and a pressurized fuselage, the Martin 4-0-4 served with distinction with TWA, Eastern, and other airlines. Convair 240 The Convair 240 was a short/medium-haul transport powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp engines. It was introduced in 1948. 28 / 43
Mass Air Travel Begins No longer a thrill reserved for the rich, air travel became safer, popular, and less driven by passenger amenities. By the end of the 1950s, America’s airlines were bringing a new level of speed, comfort, and efficiency to the traveling public. But as flying became commonplace and jet aircraft became the norm, the air travel experience began to change. The level of personal service decreased. The stresses of air travel began to replace the thrill. Flying was no longer a novelty or an adventure; it was becoming a necessity. "Red Eye" Specials With airplanes becoming faster and passenger numbers increasing, airlines discontinued their plush sleeper service by the 1950s. Expensive to operate, sleeper service gave way to low-fare night coach service. The coast-to-coast eastbound flights became known as “red eye” specials. The Begining of "Jet Lag" Passengers who swiftly crossed several time zones began experiencing physiological problems. Shortened or lengthened days upset natural body rhythms and made sleeping difficult. Although later dubbed “jet lag,” this problem was first experienced after long-distance trips on fast piston-engine and turboprop airliners. Baseball Begins to Fly Nonstop cross-country flights let major league baseball expand beyond a day’s train ride and into new markets west of the Mississippi. The Brooklyn Dodgers acquired a Convair 440 for their use, and by 1958 both the Dodgers and the New York Giants found new homes in California. Is Flying a Necessity? People got along just fine before airplanes were invented. But now the world has come to depend on airplanes for many things. Visit the luggage pile under the 747 nose to explore the many ways air travel affects everyday life. Charge Card Airlines issued company charge cards to their employees—predecessors to today’s credit cards. “You Look Tired, Bob.” Why do you think overnight, coast-to-coast flights were called “red eyes”? “Fly Now!” Even though airlines mostly advertised in newspapers and magazines, by the 1950s nothing matched bright, bold posters to sell the anticipation of arriving at a new destination. Dramatic and colorful airline posters appeared in retail store displays, at city airline ticket counters, and on the walls of travel agents’ offices. Competing with train and ocean liner advertisements, airline posters in the 1950s usually included at least a small iconic representation of the airplane servicing the route advertised. As air travel grew safer and air travelers more savvy, advertisers focused less on passengers, timetables, airplanes, and even flying itself, and more on airline destinations. This 1957 poster’s glowing orange background and whimsical portrayal of Cubans presents an attractive but romanticized picture of the island nation. In 1955, Cuba provided hefty subsidies to hotel, nightclub, and casino builders in hope of turning Havana into the “Las Vegas of the tropics.” Before World War II, Pan American didn’t have to boast that it was the “world’s most experienced airline.” But by the late 1940s, competition from other airlines shifted Pan Am’s advertising focus. In this 1951 poster, the airplane is almost incidental. The Boeing 377 Stratocruiser, Pan Am’s newest “Clipper Ship,” is drawn to scale with some detail. Yet the airplane pales in comparison with the stunning Scandinavian fjord. The signature and distinctive design of the Lockheed Constellation’s three-finned tail said it all—Trans World Airlines. Even though other airlines flew the Constellation, TWA had commissioned the airplane and flew the largest Constellation fleet. The airliner became identified with TWA. 29 / 43
Section 4: The Jet Age, 1958-Today The jet engine revolutionized air travel. Jets symbolized a new era that was fast and powerful, globally connected, and driven by technology—the jet age. Jet engines enabled bigger, faster, and more productive airliners. New technology reduced operating costs and airfares. At the same time, the federal government ended airline regulation, dramatically changing the industry. With falling fares, more people than ever could afford to fly. The effects of deregulation, along with the computer revolution and heightened security measures, especially following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, have profoundly changed the nature of the air travel experience. Object Highlight: Boeing 747-151 This nose section is from a Northwest Airlines Boeing 747-151. First flown in 1970, this 747 was the first built for Northwest and the first 747 to open service across the Pacific. It was retired in 1999. The giant Boeing 747 revolutionized long-distance air travel. Designed originally for Pan American to replace the 707, the 747 offered far lower seat-mile costs. It carried 400 passengers—two and a half times more than the 707. Propelled by four powerful and efficient high-bypass turbofan engines, the “Jumbo Jet” spawned a new generation of wide-body airliners from Airbus, Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and later Boeing. Touch the Wheels The front wheels of a 747 support about 10% of the overall airplane weight. Each tire could carry four Asian elephants! See the large strut? It absorbs the shock of the speeding plane as it hits the ground. 30 / 43
Transition Aircraft: The Turboprops Turboprop-powered aircraft use jet engines to turn a propeller. Turboprop aircraft are more fuel efficient and reliable than piston-engine aircraft. Beginning in 1955, turboprops found brief success on medium-range routes before being replaced by pure jets. Many regional and local-service airlines replaced the piston engines on their aircraft with turboprop engines, such as the Allison-powered Convair 580 and the Rolls-Royce Dart–powered Convair 600 series. Piston Engines Versus Jet Engines Piston Engine Piston engines have many parts moving in alternating directions, which produce vibrations and wear. Jet Engine Jet engines have fewer moving parts than piston engines, so they are more reliable and less costly to operate. Lockheed L 188 Electra II Lockheed produced the first U.S. turboprop-powered aircraft, the L 188 Electra II. American Airlines began flying them in 1959. However, wing failures caused by excessive vibration resulted in several fatal accidents and flight restrictions. By the time Electras returned to full service, jetliners had superseded them. The Lockheed Electra II featured a lounge in the rear of the cabin, as shown in this Pacific Southwest Airlines postcard. Vickers Viscount Capital Airlines was a prominent presence in the Mid-Atlantic and Midwest. In 1955 it became the first U.S. airline to introduce the revolutionary Vickers Viscount turboprop-powered airliner. Mismanagement and the expense of acquiring the British airliner forced Capital to sell out to United in 1961. Fokker F-27 The Dutch Fokker F-27 Friendship was one of the most widely sold turboprop airliners in history. It first entered service in 1958 when it began flying with West Coast Airlines. Object Highlight: Rolls-Royce Dart First introduced in 1948, the Rolls-Royce Dart turboprop engine combined the power of jet propulsion with the efficiency of propellers. It was widely used in the first generation of turboprop-powered aircraft, including the British Vickers Viscount and the Dutch Fokker F-27. The Dart enabled these and other new airliners to lower airline operating costs and bring greater speed and comfort to passengers traveling on short-to-medium-length routes. 31 / 43
The First Generation of Jet Airliners Jet passenger service began in the United States in the late 1950s with the introduction of Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 airliners. Both the British de Havilland D.H. 106 Comets and Soviet Tupolev Tu-104s had entered service earlier. But 707s and DC-8s were bigger, faster, had greater range, and proved more profitable. The first jet service by any U.S. airline began on October 26, 1958, when this Pan American World Airways Boeing 707, the Clipper America, left New York for Paris. Pan American introduced overseas flights on 707s in October 1958. Within weeks, National Airlines began domestic jet service using a 707 borrowed from Pan Am. American Airlines opened domestic jet service with its own 707s in January 1959. Delta and United began flying DC-8s later in 1959. The Advantages of Jets Jet engines have far fewer moving parts than piston engines, so they are more reliable, safer, and less costly to operate. They burn kerosene, which is less expensive than gasoline, and produce tremendous thrust for their weight. For these reasons, jet aircraft can be made larger and can fly faster than piston-engine aircraft. “Fuselage” Is French… It comes from the word fuselé (fyoo-zeh-LAY), meaning “spindle-shaped.” This aptly describes the shape of the fuselage, or body, of an airplane. Object Highlight: Boeing 707 Model The 707 evolved from the 367-80, or “Dash 80,” the prototype for the U.S. Air Force’s KC-135 tanker. Boeing’s 707 was designed for a transcontinen¬tal or one-stop transatlantic flight range. But 707-300s were modified with extra fuel tanks and more efficient turbofan engines to fly nonstop across the Atlantic. Boeing built 855 of them. The prototype for the Boeing 707, the “Dash 80,” is currently on display at the Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia. A Little Means a Lot Pan Am insisted that Boeing make the 707 wider by just four inches (about 10 centimeters), which let the airline add one more seat to every row. Object Highlight: Douglas DC-8 Model The Douglas DC-8 jet airliner was designed to replace the piston-engine DC-7 on long-distance routes. The rugged aircraft’s adaptable design allowed the production of several versions with extended fuselages. The longest could carry 269 passengers. Douglas built 556 DC-8s. The first three series of DC-8s were powered by Pratt & Whitney JT3C or JT4A turbojet engines. More efficient JT3D turbofans powered the later Series 50 and 60. Over 100 aircraft were re-engined in the 1980s as DC-8-70s with highly efficient CFM56 high-bypass turbofan engines. Object Highlight: Pratt & Whitney JT3 Model The JT3 turbojet engine used in the Boeing 707 was a commercial version of the U.S. Air Force’s J53. In the early 1960s, the JT3 was modified into a low-bypass turbofan—the JT3D. The first three compressor stages were replaced with two fan stages, which extended beyond the compressor casing to act like propellers. The resulting increase in airflow lowered fuel consumption, noise, and emissions. JT3Ds became widely used, especially on long-range Boeing 707 300s and Douglas DC-8s. Flying Art To promote travel to South America in the early 1970s, Braniff Airlines hired American artist Alexander Calder to create flying works of art. Calder favored bright colors, especially yellow, orange, red, and blue. He used paint specially made to withstand high speed, high altitude, and weather. Coast to Coast by Jet American Airlines set a new speed mark in 1959 with the first regularly scheduled transcontinental jet service. Nonstop flights between New York and San Francisco took only five hours. That was three hours less than by the piston-engine DC-7. The one-way fare, including a $10 surcharge for jet service, was $115.50, or $231 round trip. That was almost 25% cheaper than flying by piston-engine airliners. In the early 1960s, new aircraft brought the comfort, speed, and efficiency of jet travel to short- and medium-distance routes. The pioneering design of the French Sud Aviation Caravelle with its two rear-mounted jets, gave rise to the Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 727. Object Highlight: Douglas DC-9 Model Douglas produced the DC 9 in 1965 to compete with the short-range British BAC 111, which had been winning sales in the United States. The DC-9 delivered low operating costs with its rear-mounted, twin-engine design and two-crew configuration. Between 1965 and 2006, airlines ordered more than 2,200 DC-9s and the advanced MD 80, MD-90, and Boeing 717 versions for short- and medium-distance routes. Object Highlight: Boeing 727 Model The Boeing 727 was modeled after the British de Havilland Trident, with its distinctive “T” tail and rear-mounted engines. It was designed to fly on shorter routes and from smaller airports than the larger 707. The 727 was the first Boeing aircraft with triple-slotted flaps, completely powered controls, self-contained aft-mounted stairs, and an auxiliary power unit to replace ground starting equipment. Three Pratt & Whitney JT8D turbofan engines powered the jet plane. Boeing delivered the first 727 to Eastern Airlines in 1964. When production ended in 1983, Boeing had built 1,831 727s, a jet airliner production record at that time. 32 / 43
Air Travel in a Changing America Sweeping cultural changes in the 1960s and 1970s reshaped the airline industry. More people began to fly, and air travel became less exclusive. In the 1960s, America experienced massive social change as millions of citizens fought for their rights. At the same time, American culture was becoming increasingly homogeneous. Retail franchises were eliminating distinctive regional characteristics. Television reached into most homes. The automobile was transforming cities, and suburbs were consuming huge expanses of rural land. The interstate highway system was spreading across the nation, and a growing web of jetliner routes linked the country. Traveling from coast to coast now took as little as five hours. Who Flew? Between 1955 and 1972, passenger numbers more than quadrupled. By 1972 almost half of all Americans had flown. Most passengers were still business travelers, with a small percentage “frequent flyers.” Another breed of transatlantic travelers—the Jet Set—briefly emerged as fashionable trend. But falling fares in the 1970s welcomed more passengers, undermining the exclusivity of jet travel. Changing Styles The popularity of air travel provoked fierce competition. Because air fares were government regulated, airlines resorted to attracting passengers, especially businessmen, with such amenities as better food, drinks, movies, and even fashionable staff uniforms. Flight attendant uniforms evolved from conservative and military in appearance to colorful and stylish, reflecting the changing social attitudes of the 1960s. To appeal to the mostly male travelers, airlines introduced miniskirts and hot pants, to the dismay of many flight attendants. Object Highlights: Uniforms Stewardess Uniform, Braniff Airways, 1965 One of the first airlines to adopt new styles, Braniff Airways hired noted fashion designer Emilio Pucci to create a new line of flight attendant uniforms. Pucci designed several outfits with bold, brash colors, including this uniform worn by Patricia Cunnington in the mid-1960s. Captain Uniform, TWA, 1960s Unlike women’s uniforms, those worn by male flight crew members remained mostly unchanged during the 1960s. This typically conservative uniform was worn by Trans World Airlines Capt. George Duvall. He flew Pope Paul VI during the Pontiff’s visit to the United States in 1965. Stewardess Uniform, Air California, 1960s Air California introduced Mexican-inspired uniforms designed to reflect California’s Spanish heritage and also incorporate 1960s’ fashions. Flight attendants ended up wearing sombreros and capes along with miniskirts and go-go boots. Airlines like Southwest issued revealing uniforms featuring hot pants and miniskirts to attract businessmen. Diverse Stories: Mary Wells Innovative advertising executive Mary Wells transformed Braniff Airways’ image in the mid-1960s with her “End of the Plain Plane” campaign. Braniff introduced brightly colored aircraft as well as imaginative new uniforms by famed fashion designer Emilio Pucci. The plastic bubble helmets supposedly protected hairdos on windy tarmacs. “When a tired businessman gets on an airplane, we think he ought to be allowed to look at a pretty girl.”—Mary Wells, creator of the Braniff ad campaign, quoted in Business Week, 1967 Diverse Stories: Jean Louis In 1968, United hired noted fashion designer Jean Louis to create a stylish line of flight attendant uniforms. Social Change in the Airline Industry The dramatic social and cultural changes of the 1960s and 1970s profoundly affected commercial aviation. Barriers against the widespread participation of women and people of color began to fall. Airlines began to hire women and African Americans as pilots. Object Highlights: Uniforms Emily Howell's First Officer Uniform, Frontier Airlines, 1973 Diverse Stories: Emilly Howell Emily Howell broke through the gender barrier to become the first American woman to fly routinely for a scheduled U.S. commercial airline. Howell was an experienced pilot when regional carrier Frontier Airlines hired her as a second officer in January 1973. She soon advanced to first officer (co-pilot) and then to captain. Cynthia Berkeley's Maternity Uniform United Airlines, 1990s Diverse Stories: Cynthia Berkeley In the early 1990s, United became the first airline to issue an official maternity uniform for its female pilots. By then the industry and the traveling public had accepted that all qualified people, regardless of race or gender, could pilot an airliner. Capt. Cynthia Berkeley wore this uniform. Bonnie Tiburzi's First Officer Uniform, American Airlines, 1973 Diverse Stories: Bonnnie Tiburzi Bonnie Tiburzi was hired by American Airlines in March 1973. While Emily Howell had broken the gender barrier just a few months earlier, Tiburzi became the first American woman to fly for a major airline. 33 / 43
Aviation Technology Innovations in aeronautical technology made aircraft safer, quieter, and more fuel- and cost-efficient. High-Bypass Turbofan Engines High-bypass turbofans have a large fan at the front of the engine that produces most of the thrust. They are more powerful, more efficient, and much quieter than conventional jet engines. Introduced on Boeing’s 747 wide-body airliner in 1970, high-bypass turbofans drastically changed the economics of the airline industry. They helped lower operating costs and, therefore, fares. Four of these engines power a Boeing 747.Smaller versions have increased the efficiency of narrow-body airliners, the most widely used type in service. Object Highlight: Rolls-Royce RB.211 This high-bypass turbofan engine is widely used on Boeing and Airbus airliners. Its unique “three-spool” construction incorporates one more compressor stage than two-spool designs. While more complex, the three-spool design can produce greater thrust with lower fuel consumption and emissions. The RB.211 was first installed on Lockheed’s L 1011 TriStar. NASA and the Jet Age NASA (and its predecessor, the NACA) has created several revolutionary aeronautical technologies that make air travel safer, more efficient, and less expensive. Dr. Richard T. Whitcomb led the development of several key technologies that help reduce aerodynamic drag and therefore increase fuel efficiency and range. These included: area rule in the 1950s and 1960s, supercritical wings in the 1970s, and winglets in the 1970s and 1980s. "Area Rule" Narrowing an aircraft’s fuselage where the wings join the body reduces drag at high speeds. This drag-reducing concept is called “area rule.” This distinctive “Coke-bottle” shape was first applied to jet fighters and later to such airliners as the Boeing 747 and Concorde. Wingtips Small vertical fins on wingtips, called winglets, reduce the strength of wingtip vortices (air swirling off the ends of the wings). Most airliners feature some type of winglet to help decrease drag. "Supercritical" Wings Most jetliners fly at transonic speeds—just below the speed of sound. At these speeds, shock waves form over the wings. A “supercritical” wing delays the formation and reduces the size of the shock waves. All new large jetliners now feature this highly efficient, drag-reducing wing design. "Speed Pods" The Convair 990 used NASA-designed anti-shock bodies, or “speed pods,” on each wing to reduce drag at high subsonic speeds. The pods used area rule to improve the aircraft’s performance and to allow the 990 to cruise at Mach .91, just below the speed of sound. Go Big: Wide-Body Airliners A new generation of huge, fuel-efficient airliners that carried hundreds of passengers helped drive down the cost of flying. Pan American and Boeing opened a new era in commercial aviation when the first wide-body Boeing 747 entered service in January 1970. Powered by four efficient, high-bypass turbofan engines, the huge aircraft could seat up to 400 passengers (later versions even more). The 747 had lower operating costs than other airliners at the time. Other wide-body designs soon followed, such as the three-engine McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L 1011 TriStar and the twin-engine Airbus A300. Object Highlight: Boeing 747 “The Boeing 747 is so big that it has been said that it does not fly; the earth merely drops out from under it.”—Capt. Ned Wilson, Pan Am The Boeing 747 revolutionized air travel by making flying more affordable. Its high-bypass turbofan engines and immense seating capacity gave the 747 the lowest seat-mile costs in the industry. The 747 quickly became the airliner of choice for long-range service. Look, Up in the Sky! If the entire Boeing 747 were on display, its tail would extend all the way back to the far wall of Boeing Milestones of Flight gallery. Airbus A300 Airbus, a consortium of European aerospace manufacturers, designed the 300-seat, wide-body A300 for short- to medium-range routes. The first one flew in 1972. Airbus developed a wide range of technically advanced aircraft. By the 1990s it had become a serious rival to Boeing. Lockheed L-1011 TriStar The graceful, technologically advanced Lockheed L-1011 TriStar entered service with Eastern Airlines in 1972. To demonstrate its excellent engineering, a TriStar airliner made the first fully automatic transcontinental flight. But because of financial problems, the L 1011 marked the end of Lockheed’s role in the commercial aircraft market. Supersonic Dead End The future of commercial aviation in the 1970s appeared to be the supersonic transport (SST)—an airliner that could fly faster than sound. U.S. advocates hoped to build a larger and faster SST to compete with the British and French Concorde and the Soviet Tupolev Tu-144. But concerns about huge development and operational costs, high fuel consumption, drastically high fares, sonic booms, and other environmental issues proved insurmountable. U.S. airlines placed no orders for Boeing’s 2707 SST. Congress withdrew support and the project died. Introduced in 1976, the Concorde was the first and only operational supersonic transport. It could carry 100 passengers across the Atlantic in less than four hours, but its airfares were extremely expensive. All 14 Concordes that went into service were purchased by the British and French governments for their national airlines. Concordes stopped flying in 2003. Braniff Airways briefly flew the Concorde in 1979–80. It temporarily purchased an aircraft from British Airways or Air France for the duration of each flight. But flying subsonically between Washington, DC, and Dallas–Fort Worth by Concorde proved more expensive and no faster than by conventional jetliners. The Concorde never flew with Braniff branding; this image is an artist’s impression. The first Air France Concorde to open service to Rio de Janeiro, Washington, DC, and New York City is on display at the Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia. Air Travel and Safety Airline travel is the safest form of transportation. More people die in auto accidents in three months in the United States than have lost their lives in the entire history of commercial flight. It is far safer to fly than it is to get to the airport. Because air travel is so safe and accidents so rare, when an incident occurs it is often highly publicized, which heightens the unwarranted perception of danger. Object Highlight: Oxygen Mask Since the advent of high-altitude pressurized airliners in the early 1940s, airliners have featured oxygen masks. Other safety equipment for emergencies are evacuation slides and rafts. 34 / 43
Deregulation: A Watershed Event In 1978, Congress passed a law allowing airlines to set their own fares and routes, an act that transformed the industry and the passenger experience. Regulation by the federal government had enabled airlines to prosper, but it also kept fares high and limited operating efficiencies. Many thought the Civil Aeronautics Board, which regulated aviation, had outlived its usefulness. Congressional investigators compared fares of regulated airlines flying between states with fares of unregulated airlines flying within states. They found that unregulated airlines charged far lower fares. Sweeping change was needed, and Congress took action. The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 Passed with bipartisan support, the Airline Deregulation Act phased out the Civil Aeronautics Board. The act immediately lifted restrictions on fares and access to routes. Airlines could now fly where they wanted and charge what the market would bear. Established airlines rushed to gain or preserve access to the most lucrative routes. New airlines quickly formed. Fierce competition resulted and drove fares down. Passengers flocked to airports in record numbers. Diverse Stories: Alfred E. Kahn Cornell University economist Alfred E. Kahn was among the first to view the airline industry strictly as a business. He believed that breaking up the industry structure would create new airlines, increase competition, and lower fares. President Carter appointed him chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board to lead the nation into airline deregulation. Most airlines strongly opposed deregulation and encouraged their employees to lobby against its passage. Their fears of a destabilized industry were well founded. President Jimmy Carter signed the Airline Deregulation Act into law on October 24, 1978, the first time in U.S. history that an industry was deregulated. The Hub-and-Spoke System With routes deregulated, airlines adopted a more efficient hub-and-spoke system—using a few major airports as central connecting points. This strategy maximized aircraft use and increased passenger loads. But it also increased airport and air traffic congestion and eliminated many convenient nonstop flights. And when one airline dominated a hub, reduced competition often led to higher fares. What’s a Hub? A hub is a central airport with flight paths radiating from it like spokes on a bicycle wheel. In a hub-and-spoke airline system, most flights connect through a few hub airports. Flying After Deregulation Deregulation allowed wide-open competition among airlines. Along with the personal computer revolution and stricter security measures, these changes transformed the flying experience. Since deregulation, travelers have benefited from low fares and more frequent service on heavily traveled routes. In exchange for lower fares, most passengers have accepted fewer in-flight amenities. And while deregulation introduced more communities to affordable air travel, some less-profitable markets experienced a reduction in air service. Computer technology and the internet have revolutionized how people plan trips, buy tickets, and get boarding passes. Heightened security, especially since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, has made the airport experience more restrictive and time consuming. Hundreds of millions of passengers now fly each year in the United States. But that popularity has also brought crowded airplanes and congested airports, and has dulled the luster air travel once had. To offer low air fares, airlines have cut costs in other ways. They’ve often reduced, eliminated, or charged for amenities that air travelers once took for granted. A rash of airliner hijackings in the 1960s began the increasingly tight security measures at airports. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, raised security to levels never before seen in America. Access to boarding areas, once open to anyone, is now tightly restricted, and every passenger is carefully screened. 35 / 43
Then and Now How has the passenger experience changed over the years? Flying has changed in countless ways since the 1960s and 1970s: how you buy a ticket, what kind of luggage you bring, where you say goodbye at the airport, how you board your plane, and what you eat during flight—to name just a few. Then...
How Does Air Travel Affect You? Air travel affects your life, even if you don’t fly. Lobster Box Jet transportation combined with refrigeration allows people around the world to enjoy foods that used to be available only in certain regions. Someone in landlocked Kansas can enjoy fresh Maine lobster, shipped live. Fruit Boxes and Crates In the winter, people in the northern hemisphere can enjoy grapes harvested in Chile or pears from Argentina. We’re no longer limited to eating only what’s “in season.” Bag with Skis and Poles Faster and cheaper air travel lets more people fly than ever before. Today it’s not uncommon to fly across the country for a few days of recreation. Hawaii Suitcase Faster and cheaper air travel lets more people fly than ever before. Today it’s not uncommon to fly to an exotic location for vacation. Disney Suitcase Some vacation spots, such as Walt Disney World in Orlando, are popular in part because they’ve worked with airlines to make flying there easy. Baseball Suitcase Today, a sports team’s biggest rival may be thousands of miles away. Jet travel allowed major league baseball to expand into new markets west of the Mississippi River. The New York Giants and the Brooklyn Dodgers found new homes in California. Family Reunion Suitcase Faster and cheaper air travel have contributed to family members living farther apart. People are more willing to move away for a new job or to attend college. They’re just a flight away from friends and family. Politician Suitcase It’s easier for representatives to travel between Washington, DC, and their home states, and to stay in contact with the people they serve. During elections, a politician’s schedule may include several stops across the country in just one day. Kidney Cooler Jet travel helps doctors to save lives. Donated organs can be quickly transported over long distances. A kidney is the easiest organ to ship, carried in coolers like this one. Glass Vial Container Although jet travel allows germs to spread faster and farther, air travel also allows rapid responses to public health emergencies around the world, flying health care professionals and medications. Amazon Box Online shopping has expanded so rapidly that we take air shipping for granted. If you’re willing to pay the cost, you can receive items the next day, even from across the country. 36 / 43
New and Expanding Airlines Deregulation spurred the creation of dozens of new airlines and prompted many smaller airlines to expand. PeoplExpress, Presidential, New York Air, and other new airlines arose. Local and regional airlines—Air Florida, Frontier, Ozark—tried to expand nationally. Eastern, Braniff, Delta, Continental, Western, and Northwest extended their networks to compete with the largest carriers. Some intrastate airlines, including Pacific Southwest, Air California, and Southwest, expanded too. Faced with all this new competition, established airlines tried to lure passengers with lower fares, and curbed costs by cutting cabin service. PeoplExpress PeoplExpress epitomized the new airlines when it began flying in 1981. It made the underused Newark, New Jersey, airport its hub. By eliminating in-flight services and maximizing employee productivity, it offered very low fares. It instantly became popular, especially with budget travelers. New York Air New York Air offered low-cost shuttle service in the East between Washington, DC, New York, and Boston. The nonunion airline flew bright red McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and MD-80 airliners. Regional Airlines Since deregulation in 1978, small regional airlines have grown dramatically. Regional airlines, which include commuter airlines, serve small cities in local geographic areas. Today, regionals carry more than 20% of the nation’s airline passengers and operate large fleets of small, fuel-efficient, jet-powered aircraft. Most regional airlines are either owned by or under contract to the major carriers. Through operating agreements, or code sharing, regionals carry traffic between small cities and major airline hub airports, thereby generating substantial traffic for the national carriers. Regional Jets Responding to passenger preferences for pure jet aircraft, regional airlines rushed to buy a new generation of airliners powered by small, highly efficient turbofan jet engines. Bombardier Q Series Formerly known as de Havilland Canada Dash 8s, the turboprop airliners of the Bombardier Q Series are designed for the rigors of daily flights and are capable of short takeoff and landing (STOL) operations. These versatile aircraft seat 40 to 78 passengers. Bombardier CRJ Derived from the Canadair Challenger business jet, the Bombardier CRJ revolutionized regional airline service when it entered service in 1992. The first pure jet regional airliner, the CRJ series, quickly won the acceptance of passengers and airlines alike. CRJs can seat 50 to 90 passengers. ERJ 145 Series Embraer introduced its ERJ 145 series of regional jets in 1996. Based on the Brasilia fuselage, the ERJ 145 family consists of four aircraft with seating ranging from 37 to 50. Seating on the larger E-Jet series ranges from 70 to 118. Object Highlight: New York Air Button New York Air’s staff often wore colorful buttons to advertise new routes and service. Object Highlight: New York Air Bag Reflecting New York Air’s regional culture, in-flight snacks were referred to as noshes and served in bags like this. Object Highlights: Uniforms Flight Attendant Uniform, New York Air, ca. 1983 Flight Attendant Uniform, Republic Airlines, 1986 Republic Airlines was formed by the merger of North Central Airlines and Southern Airways in 1979. It quickly grew into a nationwide carrier after purchasing Hughes Air West in 1980, but was in turn absorbed by Northwest Airlines in 1986. Flight attendant Mary Ellen Lipnitz wore this uniform. Flight Attendant Uniform, Piedmont Airlines, 1989 Established in North Carolina in 1948, Piedmont was a popular Southern and Mid-Atlantic regional airline noted for its excellent service and “southern hospitality.” It merged with USAir in 1989. This was the last style of uniform worn by Piedmont flight attendants. Flight Manager Uniform, PeoplExpress, 1980s To cut costs and encourage efficiency, PeoplExpress made every owner-employee a “manager.” By eliminating traditional barriers to productivity and easing formalities, the company hoped employees would serve their customers better. This strategy raised morale but caused confusion and actually hurt productivity. This simple uniform, worn by pilot Mike Petraszko, was identical to that of other managers. It sports no “wings” typically found on pilot uniforms. The FAA eventually made PeoplExpress adopt more conventional uniforms to make flight crew more identifiable to passengers. Object Highlight: PeoplExpress Conference Room Sign This handmade sign reflects the low-cost approach of PeoplExpress. From Stewardess to Flight Attendant Reflecting the social changes of the 1960s and 1970s, the term “stewardess” evolved into the gender-neutral “flight attendant.” Conservative uniform styles reappeared due to new laws that prohibited discrimination in hiring based on age, appearance, and gender. Men now returned to the profession. Free to compete by offering low fares, frequent service, and more routes, airlines no longer felt the need to hire only attractive young women to appeal to male passengers. By 1980, United Airlines uniforms had returned to a more conservative style. These stylish and comfortable uniforms designed for functionality heighten the sense of professionalism of the cabin crew rather than marketing enhanced employee productivity. Survival of the Fittest Deregulation gave airlines the freedom to compete, but also the freedom to fail. For two years after deregula¬tion, airlines enjoyed widespread success. But when recession hit in the early 1980s, compounded by an air traffic controllers strike in 1981, the industry suffered losses. Many airlines had over-expanded and found themselves desperately fighting for a share of a decreasing market. Large, well-managed, well-financed airlines, such as American, United, and Delta, weathered the storm during the 1980s. But Braniff, Eastern, and many others could not, and were forced into bankruptcy and extinction. Cost-Cutting Struggling to survive, airlines cut wages and benefits, but this strategy resulted in strikes and lower productivity. Operations were streamlined and thousands of employees laid off. Some feared these efforts would compromise safety if necessary maintenance was deferred to save money. These fears proved groundless. Merger mania swept through the industry. By the late 1980s, such old names as National, Western, Piedmont, Ozark, Pacific Southwest, and Air Cal were gone. So were most of the new airlines, including PeoplExpress and New York Air. The Demise of Pan American With service faltering in the 1970s, Pan Am began losing passengers. To gain a domestic network, it bought National Airlines in 1980, but the merger proved costly. It sold its Pacific routes and the famous Pan Am Building in New York to help pay its debts. The bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, in 1988 dealt a further blow. America’s leading international carrier since 1928, Pan American ceased flying in December 1991. Southwest Airlines Southwest began as a small carrier flying between Houston and Dallas. Under Herb Kelleher’s innovative management, it quickly grew into one of America’s largest and most profitable airlines. Southwest used only Boeing 737s to minimize costs, and emphasized “no frills” cabin service and low fares. It also pioneered direct service between underserved downtown airports in large metropolitan areas and smaller cities. To sidestep competition, it moved into satellite airports of major cities. Southwest became a model for a new generation of airlines. Object Highlight: Captain Flying Jacket, Southwest Airlines, 2000 Symbolic of Southwest Airlines’ casual efficiency, airline employees dress in comfortable clothes. This strategy is meant to reduce fatigue, improve morale, and promote higher productivity. Southwest was the first airline to issue military-style leather flight jackets to its pilots. Object Highlights: Boarding Passes One way Southwest cut costs was by issuing reusable plastic boarding passes and eliminating assigned seating. The passes were sequentially numbered and color-coded for each flight. Passengers boarded in groups in the order in which they checked in. This encouraged early arrivals and speeded up seating, thus allowing Southwest to return an aircraft to service quickly. The PATCO Strike In August 1981, 13,000 members of the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) called an illegal strike. They demanded higher wages, shorter hours, and better retirement benefits. By striking during a peak travel time, PATCO expected the federal government to concede, as it had previously. President Ronald Reagan instead fired the controllers—federal workers who weren’t allowed to strike. The FAA replaced them with supervisors, military controllers, and controllers who didn’t strike. Airlines flew reduced schedules until enough new controllers were on the job. Object Highlights: PACO Picket Sign, Cup, and Shirt The animosity between the striking controllers and management is reflected in the handwritten comments on the picket sign and the images on the coffee cup and tee-shirt. Object Highlight: Eastern Airlines Sign Board This sign board was removed from Eastern’s last gate at Washington’s National Airport. Object Highlight: Flight Attendant Uniform, Eastern Airlines, 1991 This is the last flight attendant uniform issued by Eastern Airlines before it went out of business. The Death of Eastern Airlines Eastern Airlines had risen to prominence in the East and South. After deregulation, and under Frank Borman, it expanded west but then had to scale back in the face of mounting economic losses. Frank Lorenzo, who had instituted controversial labor reforms to salvage Continental Airlines, acquired Eastern in 1986. Faced with huge losses, he tried to force concessions from Eastern’s mechanics. This move provoked a bitter strike, which forced Eastern into extinction in January 1991. 37 / 43
Safety in the Skies Every moment of every day, thousands of aircraft safely cross the skies over the United States. Each is carefully watched and directed to its destination by an interconnected system of air traffic control along well-chosen routes. Despite the severe challenges of weather and airport congestion, the Federal Aviation Administration’s professional workforce ensures that commercial aviation remains the safest form of travel. Weather Safety Severe weather causes more than 70% of air traffic delays, and costs the airlines billions of dollars every year. Lightning alone causes 33% of these losses. Air traffic controllers work constantly to minimize weather disruptions, while ensuring that every flight arrives safely. Airline Security Security measures to protect airliners from hijacking and terrorism began in the 1960s. Security increased to unprecedented levels after September 11, 2001. As flying grew increasingly popular, airliners became attractive targets for hijackers and terrorists. The hijacking of a National Airlines jet to Havana, Cuba, in 1961 sparked a decade-long spate of similar acts. By the late 1960s, political terrorists had attacked airliners and airports to draw attention to their causes. In response, the FAA placed armed sky marshals aboard airliners. In 1973, it began using metal detectors and x ray machines to search for weapons and explosives. Despite such measures, airlines remained vulnerable. In the 1980s, security increased by:
On September 11, terrorists hijacked four airliners and used them to kill more than 3,000 people in the deadliest attack in U.S. history. Two airliners destroyed the World Trade Center towers in New York, a third slammed into the Pentagon near Washington, DC, and the fourth crashed in rural Pennsylvania after its passengers courageously fought back. In response to September 11, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) was created by the Aviation and Transportation Security Act of November 2001. TSA soon took over airport security and installed a new federal workforce to screen passengers and baggage. TSA became part of the newly formed Department of Homeland Security in 2003. 38 / 43
Aviation Technology Innovations in aeronautical technology have made aircraft safer, quieter, and more fuel and cost efficient. High-Bypass Turbofan Engines High-bypass turbofans have a large fan at the front of the engine that produces most of the thrust. They are more powerful, more efficient, and much quieter than conventional jet engines. Introduced on Boeing’s 747 wide-body airliner in 1970, high-bypass turbofans drastically changed the economics of the airline industry by helping to lower operating costs and, therefore, fares. Smaller versions have increased the efficiency of narrow-body airliners, the most widely used type in service. The Pratt & Whitney JT9D was the first high-bypass turbofan engine to enter commercial service. NASA and the Jet Age NASA (and its predecessor, the NACA) created several revolutionary aeronautical technologies in the 1980s that make air travel safer, more efficient, and less expensive. In digital fly-by-wire control systems, computer-driven flight controls are linked by electrical wires. This replaces heavier, hydraulically driven cables and pulleys. The Airbus A320 was the first airliner to use digital fly-by-wire controls. NASA pioneered this technology on its highly modified Vought F-8C. In a “glass cockpit,” digital electronic displays replace conventional analog instruments. This technology provides flight crews with far better instrumentation and information than ever before. The First “A” in NASA NASA is usually associated with spaceflight,but its first “A” stands for Aeronautics, the science of air travel. NASA conducts aeronautical research and works to improve the safety of air transportation. Object Highlight: Grooved Concrete Runway Section During the 1960s, NASA developed grooved runways to channel away water and improve traction for aircraft. By reducing the effects of hydroplaning, grooved runways minimize the chance of aircraft sliding off a wet runway during landing. The technology has since been applied to highway design. This section of concrete runway was used for testing by NASA’s Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory. Object Highlight: General Electric CF6 The first successful high-bypass turbofan, the General Electric CF6 was significantly more powerful and efficient than low-bypass engines. It was originally built as the TF39 for the U.S. Air Force’s giant Lockheed C-5A Galaxy transport. Its first commercial use was on the McDonnell Douglas DC-10. It has since been installed on the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas MD-11, and Airbus A300 and A310 wide-body aircraft. Computer Technology Computers are indispensable to the airline industry. They are used to book tickets, plan flights, schedule aircraft and crew, oversee maintenance, and set fares. From ticket reservations to aircraft design and manufacture, computers make airline operations more efficient and flexible. The rise of personal computers and the internet has given passengers complete control over booking flights and seat selections. The complex and fluid airfare system that computers calculate enables savvy travelers to find low fares on many routes. SABRE In 1963, American Airlines created the first computer reservation system, the Semi-Automated Business Environment, or SABRE. Other airlines followed American’s lead and developed their own computer reservation systems. Online Ticket Sales In 1995, Alaska Airlines became the first carrier to sell tickets through the internet. This system is faster and saves money. By 2012, the majority of airline passengers were booking their tickets online using airline reservations systems or online travel sites. Code Sharing Computer reservation systems have led to code sharing—agreements between airlines that allow travelers to fly on more than one carrier on a single ticket. Code sharing increases and optimizes the flow of passenger through an airline’s network. CAD and CAM of Aircraft Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacture (CAD/CAM) have greatly reduced the cost of constructing aircraft by producing highly accurate drawings. They can also manufacture parts more precisely and faster than humans. Parts for the 747-400 are made by CAD/CAM. The Boeing 777 was the first airliner completely designed on computer. Computer Revolution in the Cockpit To manage the complex technology of modern airliners, flight crews rely on computers to fly aircraft and monitor aircraft systems. The first autopilots were used on airliners in the mid-1930s. In the late 1950s, electronic computers became small enough to be used aboard aircraft. Sophisticated digital computers can now fly aircraft in virtually any situation, while ensuring that all systems are functioning properly. Digital technology has enhanced safety and efficiency and reduced the flight crew’s workload. In 1972, NASA research pilot Gary Krier became the first to fly a digital fly-by-wire aircraft when he piloted NASA’s highly modified F-8C Crusader jet fighter. The General Dynamics (now Lockheed) F-16 Fighting Falcon was the first production aircraft designed to fly with digital fly-by-wire controls. In 1988, the Airbus A320 revolutionized commercial aviation by introducing digital fly-by-wire technology in civil airliners. It featured a glass cockpit with a unique side-stick controller to fly the aircraft. Every new airliner designed since has incorporated glass cockpit and fly-by-wire technology. Object Highlight: Airbus A320 Simulated Takeoff and Landing Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport Glass Cockpit A “glass cockpit” features computer monitors that show flight, engine, and aircraft performance data in easily understood displays. A set of up to six computer monitors replaces hundreds of gauges and switches, greatly simplifying the tasks of the flight crew. Pioneered by NASA and the aerospace industry, the glass cockpit was introduced in 1982. It’s now the industry standard. Flight Control Then and Now Aircraft control systems have changed over the past 100 years. Each system has advantages and disadvantages: Mechanical: 1920s and 1930s A system of cables and pulleys was used to control the airplane in flight. Today, mechanical controls are used only on small aircraft. Advantages:
In the 1940s, aircraft became larger and faster. Hydraulics helped a pilot control the airplane. Advantages:
In fly-by-wire systems, as the pilot moves the controls, computers send signals (through wires) to electrical motors, which adjust the aircraft’s control surfaces. Advantages:
The Leading Edge: Air Transportation Today and Tomorrow In the years after airline deregulation, several new airlines emerged while several other regional airlines expanded nationally. 39 / 43
Air Express Rapid package delivery is an important part of the airline industry. Federal Express led the way. After deregulation of the airline and trucking industries in the late 1970s, air express carriers rose to prominence. They specialized in rapid delivery of high-priority packages. In 1973, Federal Express became the first airline to operate exclusively as an express carrier. Diverse Stories: Fred Smith In a paper for his Yale economics class, Fred Smith proposed the idea of an express, door-to-door package service using a centrally located airport hub as a nighttime sorting house. Smith pursued his vision and, in 1973, he created Federal Express, using his hometown of Memphis, Tennessee, as its hub. United Parcel Service A package-delivery business since 1907, United Parcel Service (UPS) experimented with air express in the early 1930s. It began “Blue Label Air,” second-day delivery through a paired air and ground system in 1953, and introduced air express “Next Day Air” in 1982. Object Highlight: Captain Uniform, Delta Air Lines, 2020 The naval style of the Captain’s uniform has changed little since uniforms were introduced in the early 1930s. Delta pilots have worn versions of this signature double-breasted uniform since 1934. The lapel pins are from the Air Line Pilots Association union. Object Highlight: Boeing 737 Model Introduced in 1967, the Boeing 737 was designed to serve short and medium routes. After deregulation, the jet’s twin-engine efficiency and low operation costs made the 737 a best seller, with over 14,000 ordered as of 2017. Using 737s, Alaska Airlines pioneered the Required Navigation Performance technology in 1996. This integrated Global Positioning Satellite data with Enhanced Ground Proximity Radar signals to produce accurate contour maps for very precise approaches and departures in difficult terrain and bad weather. Object Highlight: Airbus A320 Model The European company Airbus entered the market for narrow-body aircraft in the mid-1980s. The 150-seat Airbus A320 was designed to compete with Boeing’s 737. The A320 pioneered the computerized “glass cockpit” and introduced such innovations as winglets. It was also the first civil airliner built with digital fly-by-wire flight controls. Object Highlight: Boeing 777 Model Introduced in 1995, the Boeing 777 is the world’s largest twin-jet airliner. The latest versions of this wide-body airliner can carry up to 425 passengers and have a maximum range of 10,000 miles (16,110 kilometers). It was designed to replace early versions of the four-engine Boeing 747. Object Highlight: Captain Uniform, United Parcel Service, 1998 Diverse Stories: Patrice Clarke Washington Patrice Clarke Washington wore this uniform while flying for UPS. In 1994, she became the first African American woman to serve as a captain for a major U.S. airline. Object Highlight: Boeing 747-151 Nose Section This nose section is from a Northwest Airlines Boeing 747-151. First flown in 1970, this 747 was the first built for Northwest and the first 747 to open service across the Pacific. It was retired in 1999. The giant Boeing 747 revolutionized long-distance air travel when it entered service in 1970. Designed originally for Pan American to replace the 707, the 747 offered far lower seat-mile costs. It carried 400 passengers—two and a half times more than the 707. Propelled by four powerful and efficient high-bypass turbofan engines, the “Jumbo Jet” spawned a new generation of wide-body airliners from Airbus, Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and later Boeing. The Boeing 747 generated great public interest because of its huge size. Airlines offered spacious legroom, piano bars, and lounges aboard their 747s to attract passengers. These amenities were soon replaced by revenue-producing seats. The 747’s cockpit was located well above the main cabin floor, because the aircraft was originally designed as a cargo transport. Pan Am suggested that passengers could sit in the area behind the cockpit. This inspired Boeing to connect the upper level with the main cabin by a graceful spiral staircase similar to the one used in its 377 Stratocruiser. How Big is the 747? If the entire Boeing 747 were on display, its tail would extend all the way back to the far wall of Boeing Milestones of Flight. Did You Know?
Object Highlights: Unforms Captain's Uniform, Northwest Airline Northwest Airlines pilots wear typical naval-style uniforms first pioneered by Pan American in the 1930s. In recognition of Northwest’s roots as one of the earliest contract air mail carriers, pilots wear wings patterned after the original U.S. Air Mail badges. Flight Attendant's Uniform, Northwest Airlines This uniform was worn by Northwest Airlines flight attendant Tami Tucker during the late 1990s. 40 / 43
vSys Shifts: Signing Up For Spotlights You MUST sign up for Spotlight shifts using vSys. How To Sign Up For NMB Spotlight Shifts in vSys:
We recommend switching the view to just show week by week by clicking on this button: Then select the shift you are interested in signing up for and click “Sign Up.” Double check that this is the shift you want and select “Sign Up” again At this point, a green bar at the top of the screen will thank you for signing up. If you refresh the search page by clicking "Search" again, the shift will now be noted as "Existing Assignment." You will also now see the shift on the home screen calendar. 41 / 43
Recording Your Hours in vSys After your shift, it is important to correctly log your volunteer hours in vSys. We report our volunteer hours and visitor interaction numbers to Central Smithsonian and Congress, so it is imperative that we have your shifts regularly and correctly logged, including visitor interaction numbers. How To Log NMB Spotlights Hours:
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After you complete this lesson and pass the quiz, please email [email protected] so they can add this training to your vSys profile. Please note that you must complete this lesson, pass the quiz, and complete the Q&A session with Curator Bob van der Linden (either at the live Zoom session or the recorded copy on Moodle) in order to sign up for America by Air Spotlight shifts. 43 / 43
Lesson Completed!This is the end of the lesson. This lesson contains the basic information about docent spotlighting in the America by Air gallery at NMB. You can review the lesson again using the links in the Lesson Menu block or the navigation buttons below. When you are finished reviewing the lesson, return to the Main Course Page to take the quiz. A PDF version of the lesson content is available on the main course page, for your reference. |