Destination MoonCourse Quiz
10. Which President stated that: “this Nation should commit itself, before the decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.”? John F. Kennedy 1/21
Welcome Back! National Air and Space Museum Docent Training NMB Spotlight Training: Destination Moon 2/21
This lesson will introduce you to providing spotlights in the Destination Moon gallery at the National Air and Space Museum: National Mall Building. After completing this lesson you will have learned more about:
This lesson, and its corresponding quiz cover the very basic content that you will need to know for starting Destination Moon Spotlights at NASM's National Mall Building. 3/21
Destination Moon For centuries, humans have dreamed of flying to the Moon. In 1959, our machines actually began to go there. A decade later, humans walked on its surface. The Destination Moon exhibition features iconic objects from the Museum's unrivaled collection of Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo artifacts, including Alan Shepard's Mercury spacesuit and spacecraft, a Saturn V F-1 engine, and Neil Armstrong's Apollo 11 spacesuit and command module Columbia. The gallery shows how an extraordinary combination of motivations, resources, and technologies made it possible for humans to walk on the Moon—and how and why we are going back today. Gallery Overview Video Please watch the following video to learn about Destination Moon from Curator Michael Neufeld. This section of the training is 20 minutes long. This video is fully captioned. If you would like to turn the captions on, click on the button in the bottom right corner of the video screen that says "CC." 4/21
Introduction For centuries, humans dreamed of flying to the Moon. In 1969, American astronauts finally set foot on its surface. What are the origins of this achievement? How was it done in less than a decade? What has happened since the Moon race ended? Discover the inspiring story of how we are exploring our nearest neighbor in space. Object Highlight: Apollo 11 Commemorative Coin In 2019, the U.S. Mint celebrated and honored the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11’s landing on the Moon through its Commemorative Coin Program. Proceeds from this program helped support the Destination Moon exhibition. 7/21 Human Spaceflight and the Moon Race By the 1950s, the United States and the Soviet Union were locked in a competition for global influence and prestige known as the Cold War. That competition sparked the Space Race. Both nations launched programs to send humans into space. The Soviets quickly achieved several spectacular space firsts. When a Russian became the first human in space in 1961, President John F. Kennedy proposed a daring plan—to send Americans to the Moon. Mercury: America's "Man-in-Space" Program Caught up in a race to achieve firsts in space, the United States and the Soviet Union spent vast amounts of money to win. President Dwight Eisenhower soon decided to turn the first human spaceflight project over to a new civilian agency: the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In fall 1958, NASA launched Project Mercury, a program to put an American in space. Both sides in the Cold War competed for global influence at a time when new nations were being created out of colonies in Africa and Asia. Soviet space triumphs suggested the Communist system was superior. In this cartoon published nine days after Sputnik’s launch, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev woos emerging nations with his Sputnik triumph, the first satellite launched into orbit around the Earth. An early NASA illustration of the Mercury capsule The astronauts chosen for Mercury became instant heroes on April 9, 1959, in Washington, DC, (from left: Donald “Deke” Slayton, Alan Shepard, Walter Schirra, Virgil “Gus” Grissom, John Glenn, L. Gordon Cooper, and M. Scott Carpenter). When asked who wanted to go into space first, all seven raised hands; Glenn raised both. Vostok: Cosmonauts in Orbit The Soviet Union began a secret human spaceflight program in 1959, not long after NASA announced Project Mercury. Its goal was to orbit a cosmonaut, the name the Soviets gave their spacefarers. Soviet engineers, led by chief designer Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, created Vostok, a fully automated spacecraft in which the cosmonaut was a passenger. Because their rocket was bigger than the American Atlas, the Vostok spacecraft could be much heavier than a Mercury capsule. The Soviets chose a group of 20 cosmonauts in 1960. Chief Designer Sergei Korolev sits in the middle of the front row with 16 of them in May 1961. To the right are Korolev’s wife and daughter; to the left is Yuri Gagarin, the first human in space. Mercury Creating a Civilian Space Agency In July 1958, President Eisenhower signed the act creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. It was built upon an older federal research agency, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), founded in 1915. NASA would carry out the peaceful and scientific parts of the space program. Eisenhower and Senate Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson agreed that a civilian space agency would reduce rivalry among the armed services and be better for the United States’ image in the Cold War. President Eisenhower swears in the first leaders of NASA: Deputy Administrator Hugh Dryden (left) and Administrator T. Keith Glennan. What were Project Mercury’s Goals? Mercury’s aim was to put a man in orbit, understand the technical requirements and medical effects, and bring him back alive. The only launch vehicles available were ballistic missiles designed to carry nuclear warheads. NASA chose the Army’s Redstone rocket for suborbital test flights and the larger Atlas rocket, an Air Force intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), to send a capsule into orbit. Why Only White Male Astronauts? Eisenhower’s decision to use military test pilots as astronauts essentially meant that only white males would qualify. At the time, no women could become pilots in the U.S. armed forces. Entrenched racial discrimination also meant there were very few test pilots of color. A group of female civilian pilots did go through the same rigorous medical tests as the astronauts. Many of them passed—the media later dubbed them the “Mercury Thirteen.” But NASA was never interested in accepting them. The first white American female or African American astronauts did not fly until 1983. Should “a girl” be first in space? Look magazine arranged for aerobatic pilot Betty Skelton to undergo astronaut testing in late 1959, along with a group of other women. Object Highlight: Mercury Primate Capsule Before humans flew in space, NASA doctors required that chimpanzees fly first to prove that spaceflight was safe. The Air Force designed this pressurized capsule for carrying a chimpanzee in flight. A system of levers and lights tested the animal’s reactions, rewarding it with banana pellets or water, or punishing it with a mild electrical shock. Ham the chimpanzee flew a suborbital mission on January 31, 1961. NASA wanted a successful test flight with an animal before it would launch an astronaut. Ham was named for the Air Force’s Holloman Aerospace Medicine Center, where he was trained. Vostok Spacecraft Size Comparison Mercury Vostok Length10 ft 11.6 in (3.34 m) 15 ft 1 in (4.6 m) (without antennas) Diameter6 ft 2.5 in (1.80 m). 7 ft 11.7 in (2.43 m) Weight3,000 lb (1,360 kg) 10,417 lb (4,725 kg) Manufacturer McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, St. Louis, MO, USA Factory of Experimental Machine Building (ZEM), Kaliningrad, Russia, USSR Diverse Stories: Valentina Tereshkova Valentina Tereshkova was the first woman in space. She spent three days in orbit on Vostok 6 in 1963. Tereshkova was an amateur parachutist, not a pilot. No other women would fly in space until cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya in 1982 and astronaut Sally Ride in 1983. Object Highlight: Vostok Model Vostok space capsules carried the first Soviet cosmonauts into space. The ball-shaped section is the crew cabin and reentry vehicle. The cosmonaut was strapped into an ejection seat, which could be used for escape during a failed launch. But the seat was also used for landing, because the spacecraft impact was too hard to land a person safely. After ejecting, the cosmonaut separated from the seat and parachuted to the ground. Behind the crew cabin is an equipment module (the green section with spheres), which carried oxygen and fuel. Behind that is the launch vehicle’s cylindrical upper stage. SSR Missions SSR Mission. Date. Pilot. Flight Time. Orbits Vostok. April 12, 1961. Yuri Gagarin. 1 hour, 48 minutes. 1 Vostok 2. August 6-7, 1961. German Titov. 1 day, 1 hour, 18 minutes. 17 Vostok 3. August 11-15, 1962. Adrian Nikolaev. 3 days, 22 hours, 22 minutes. 64 Vostok 4. August 12-15, 1962. Pavel Popovich. 2 days, 22 hours, 52 minutes. 48 Vostok 5. June 14-19, 1963. Valery Bykovsky. 4 days, 23 hours, 7 minutes. 81 Vostok 6. June 16-19, 1963. Valentina Tereshkova. 2 days, 22 hours, 50 minutes. 48 Object Highlight: Yuri Gagarin Bust By Aleksei Dmietrievitch Leonov Bronze, 2016 Diverse Stories: Yuri Gagarin First Human in Space On April 12, 1961, Yuri Gagarin became a world celebrity when he made one orbit around the Earth in a mission that lasted 108 minutes. Born in 1934 to a Russian peasant family, Gagarin survived the Nazi occupation of his village during World War II and became an air force fighter pilot. He was named a cosmonaut in 1960. For his competence, charisma, and ethnic and class background, he was chosen to be first in space. Gagarin never got another chance to fly in space. He died in an airplane crash in 1968. First American in Space On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan Shepard made a 15-minute suborbital flight to become the first American and the second human in space. His Mercury capsule, which he named Freedom 7, was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, and landed in the Atlantic Ocean. The success of Shepard’s mission was critical. An embarrassing or disastrous failure could have forced President Kennedy to delay asking Congress to support a human Moon program. Object Highlight: Alan B. Shepard, Jr Painting By Ted Wilbur Oil on canvas, 1970 In this painting (above), Shepard is wearing his Apollo lunar spacesuit. An Army Redstone rocket launched Shepard’s Mercury capsule to an altitude of 116.5 miles (187.5 kilometers). Freedom 7 splashed down 302 miles (486 kilometers) from Cape Canaveral. A Marine helicopter recovered Freedom 7 from the Atlantic Ocean after Shepard’s short flight into space. Object Highlight: Mercury Capsule Freedom 7 Alan Shepard became the first American to fly into space in this capsule on May 5, 1961. Unlike other Mercury capsules, it has only two small portholes. Once beyond the atmosphere, Shepard looked through a periscope, which extended from the side opposite the hatch. Shepard used small thrusters to adjust the capsule’s attitude in space. The nose also had a parachute and antenna canister, which, along with the retrorockets strapped to the heat shield, were discarded during descent. Object Highlight: Alan Shepard's Spacesuit Shepard wore this spacesuit during his flight in his Mercury capsule Freedom 7. The Mercury spacesuit was a close-fitting, two-layer, full-pressure suit. Its main function was to protect the astronaut against an unplanned loss of cabin pressure. B. F. Goodrich Company developed it for NASA from their Mark IV pressure suit for the U.S. Navy. Object Highlight: Alan Shepard's Training Manual Diverse Stories: Alan B. Shepard Jr Mercury and Apollo Astronaut Born in New Hampshire in 1923, Alan Shepard became a Navy test pilot. He was chosen as one of the first seven astronauts in 1959, and then as the first to fly in Mercury. After his suborbital mission, an inner-ear problem forced him to wait a decade for another chance to fly in space. He became chief of the Astronaut Office. The only Mercury astronaut to go to the Moon, he commanded Apollo 14 in 1971 and was the fifth human to set foot on the lunar surface. Shepard carries out a flight simulation. President Kennedy awarded Shepard the NASA Distinguished Service Medal after the flight. Diverse Stories: Katherine Coleman Goble Johnson Pioneering Aerospace Mathematician Born in 1918, Katherine Johnson showed a talent for mathematics at an early age. She became one of the first African American graduate students at West Virginia University. In 1953, she joined a segregated unit of black “computers” (women who performed calculations by hand) at the Langley Laboratory in Hampton, Virginia, which became part of NASA in 1958. Johnson became an expert in the mathematics of spacecraft trajectories for Project Mercury. She checked the computer calculations for John Glenn’s return by using a desktop calculator. She spent the rest of her career at Langley as a computer scientist. President Barack Obama gave her the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2015. Katherine Johnson at work in 1962. Mercury Missions Astronaut John Glenn with his Friendship 7 capsule on the launch pad. He became the first American in orbit on February 20, 1962. Mercury Missions Mission, Spacecraft Name. Date. Pilot. Flight Time. Orbits Mecury-Redstone 3, Freedom 7May 5, 1961Alan Shepard15 minutesSuborbital Mercury-Redstone 4, Liberty Bell 7July 21, 1961Gus Grissom15 minutesSuborbital Mercury-Atlas 6, Friendship 7February 20, 1962John Glenn4 hours, 55 minutes3 Mercury-Atlas 7, Aurora 7May 24, 1962Scott Carpenter4 hours, 55 minutes3 Mercury-Atlas 8, Sigma 7October 3, 1962Walter Schirra9 hours, 13 minutes6 Mercury-Atlas 9, Faith 7May 15, 1963Gordon Cooper1 day, 10 hours, 20 minutes22 The Moon Decision In April 1961, President John F. Kennedy decided to send Americans to the Moon. The Cold War was his primary motivation. Kennedy had been president for only three months when the Soviets launched Yuri Gagarin into space. Five days later, a U.S.-sponsored invasion of Cuba failed badly. His young administration looked weak. After Alan Shepard’s successful flight into space in May, Kennedy went before Congress and challenged the nation, “before the decade is out, to land a man on the Moon and return him safely to the Earth.” Yuri Gagarin’s orbital flight on April 12, 1961, motivated President Kennedy to find a space program “we could win.” This Life magazine cover features Gagarin with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev during the cosmonaut’s heroic reception. President Kennedy proposed his Moon landing goal during an address to Congress on May 25, 1961. Kennedy and the Apollo Program Senator John F. Kennedy took little interest in space before running for president. But during his campaign against Vice President Richard Nixon, he accused the Eisenhower administration of leadership failure in the Space Race. When he set the Moon landing goal, Kennedy’s main concern was beating the Soviets, not space exploration for its own sake. NASA’s Apollo program to send three astronauts around the Moon, which President Eisenhower had refused to support, thus got a new, more ambitious objective. President Kennedy congratulates James Webb in 1961 after nominating him to lead NASA. Webb had been director of the Bureau of the Budget and undersecretary of the State Department for President Truman. President Kennedy asked Vice President Lyndon Johnson for options in beating the Soviet Union in space. Kennedy’s Speech to Congress On May 25, 1961, President Kennedy addressed Congress on “urgent national needs.” After speaking at length on domestic and foreign policy, he asked Congress to fund an accelerated space program. Its primary goal would be a human Moon landing “before this decade is out,” which could mean 1969 or 1970. Kennedy acknowledged that the Apollo program would cost billions of dollars. But both houses of Congress, worried by Soviet successes in space, quickly approved a huge increase in NASA’s budget. 8/21
A Huge Challenge, Part 1 How could America land humans on the Moon in less than 10 years? President Kennedy’s decision presented enormous challenges. NASA had to make crucial decisions: how to accomplish a lunar landing; what kind of spacecraft and launch vehicle to use; how to mobilize the nation’s industries to produce spacecraft, rockets, and other hardware; and how to manage the entire complex program effectively. How to Go to the Moon Average distance to the Moon: 238,900 Miles(384,500 KM) NASA decided it had three Moon landing options. Direct Launch one large spacecraft and send it directly to the Moon. The Direct option required a gigantic booster called Nova. Earth Orbit Rendezvous Assemble a large lunar spacecraft in Earth orbit and land the entire craft on the Moon. Earth Orbit Rendezvous needed two large Saturn V launch vehicles. Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Launch a modular spacecraft to the Moon. An orbiter would circle the Moon, while a lander would descend to the surface and rendezvous with the orbiter on its return. Lunar Orbit Rendezvous required only one Saturn V launch vehicle. The Decision The choice of landing method was crucial. It would determine the kind of rockets and spacecraft NASA needed to build and the likelihood of beating the Soviets to the Moon. After much debate, NASA chose option 3, Lunar Orbit Rendezvous. The Direct and Earth Orbit Rendezvous options needed a big lander (left), which dwarfed the one proposed in 1962 for Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (right). The actual Apollo lander was almost twice as tall as this small one. Diverse Stories: John C Houbolt John Houbolt played a crucial role in the choice of Lunar Orbit Rendezvous. An Iowa-born NASA aeronautical engineer, he began advocating the idea of a small, separable lunar lander in 1960. The concept was often dismissed as too dangerous. He risked his career twice in 1961 by writing letters promoting his idea directly to Robert Seamans, a high-level NASA administrator. In early 1962, key leaders of the agency’s new Houston center came to accept his arguments. John Houbolt discusses his Moon landing concept in July 1962. "The Bug" The Lunar Orbit Rendezvous option required a new spacecraft to carry two astronauts down to the Moon’s surface. After a hurried competition, NASA awarded the contract to Grumman Aircraft of Bethpage, New York. Because of its strange appearance, with it legs and bulky shape, the lunar module Grumman created was nicknamed “the bug.” The Lunar Module docked with the Command and Service Modules (CSM), which acted as the mothership. North American Aviation built the CSM in Southern California. A Lunar Module is assembled at the Grumman plant in Bethpage, New York, on Long Island in 1968. Object Highlight: Early Concept Model This early version of the lander, around 1963, was called the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM). It had five legs and docking ports both in the nose and on top. Object Highlight: Lunar Module Model In its final configuration, the Lunar Module, or LM (still pronounced LEM), had four widely spread legs for stability, a square hatch, and no seats. The astronauts would be strapped in a standing position for the landing, which would save weight and allow them to get closer to the windows. Mobilizing the Nation NASA’s budget increased fivefold in only five years. By 1966, the agency employed 400,000 people in its programs. About 95% worked for private firms across the country. The huge expenditures of the Moon landing program had a great impact on American society, especially in the South, where building new Apollo facilities in Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas coincided with the Civil Rights Movement. African Americans on the Space Coast For African Americans living in Central Florida, the benefits of the missile and space boom were mixed. The area had been brutally segregated, and that changed only slowly. Allenhurst, a historic town created by freedmen after the Civil War, was demolished to become the site of the assembly building for the Saturn V Moon rocket. Almost all the good jobs went to better educated white people, leaving janitorial and other low-level jobs for black people. But a few pioneering African American technicians and engineers did find employment. Diverse Stories: Julius Montgomery Julius Montgomery worked for a space contractor and became the first African American enrolled at what became the Florida Institute of Technology. He later served as a city councilor in Titusville, Florida. Jobs Across America NASA spent billions of dollars a year, which touched businesses, cities, and towns across the nation. Southern California, the Deep South, and industrial centers in the Northeast and Midwest especially benefitted. Small manufacturers in almost every state also contributed, making spacesuit gloves, engine parts, electronic devices, and more. A few specialized items were purchased from other countries. When the Apollo program ended in the early 1970s, there was a corresponding crash in employment. Motivating the Workplace NASA created the Manned Spaceflight Awareness Program to emphasize that human lives depended on precision work. Factory appearances by astronauts reinforced the message. Peanuts cartoonist Charles Schulz supported the program by allowing Snoopy to be its symbol. Made in the USA Rocket stages and spacecraft for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs were assembled in California, Louisiana, Missouri, Colorado, Maryland, Alabama, and New York. Small components, such as those displayed here, were manufactured in almost every state. Object Highlight: Torque-Tip Screwdriver Apollo 15 RICO East Providence, Rhode Island Object Highlight: Apollo Survival Knife with Sheath W. R. Case and Sons Cutlery Bradford, Pennsylvania Object Highlight: Razor and Shaving Cream Michael Collins, Apollo 11 Gillette Company Boston, Massachusetts Object Highlight: Annunciator, SC-113 Apollo 16 Grimes Manufacturing Co. Akron, Ohio Object Highlight: Pressure and Quantity Indicator Gemini V Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co. Minneapolis, Minnesota Object Highlight: Toothbrush Oral Health Products, Inc. Tulsa, Oklahoma Object Highlight: Personal Passive Radiation Dosimeter Michael Collins, Apollo 11 General Dynamics, Fort Worth Division Fort Worth, Texas Object Highlight: Ultra-High-Frequency Beacon Sperry Phoenix Company Phoenix, Arizona Object Highlight: Electrocardiograph Signal Conditioner Apollo 11 Spacelabs, Inc. Snoqualmie, Washington Made in Other Nations Not all spaceflight or astronaut equipment was made in the United States. Apollo spacecraft antennae and rescue beacons were made in Canada and Britain. Omega in Switzerland supplied chronographs. Cameras came from Hasselblad in Sweden and Minolta in Japan. Object Highlight: Omega Speedmaster Chronograph Gordon Cooper, Gemini V NASA chose this chronograph (a very accurate watch combined with a stopwatch and other capabilities) after rigorous tests demonstrated its high level of precision and reliability. Object Highlight: Hasselblad 70mm Camera Mercury After Walter Schirra purchased a Swedish-built Hasselblad 35mm single-reflex camera for his Mercury mission in 1962, Hasselblads became standard for astronaut photography. NASA modified the camera to take 70mm film magazines and removed its reflex mirror and screen. Cape Canaveral, Florida’s “Space Coast” The Air Force opened the Cape Canaveral missile testing site on the Atlantic coast in 1950. After the Space Race with the Soviets began in 1957, it became even busier. NASA built a new center north of the Air Force site beginning in 1962 and named it after President Kennedy following his assassination in 1963. Diverse Stories: Robert L. "Bob" Foster Mercury and Gemini Engineer Object Highlight: Robert Foster's Jacket This jacket belonged to Robert L. “Bob” Foster, McDonnell Aircraft’s chief engineer for Project Mercury and Project Gemini at Cape Canaveral in the early 1960s. Object Highlight: Robert Foster's Pocket Slide Rule Object Highlight: Antoinette Foster’s Bracelet Antoinette “Toni” Foster assembled this bracelet. Her husband Bob bought her the space-themed charms to celebrate the programs he worked on—and to make up for being away so often. Classes at the Florida schools where she taught presented her with the two engraved charms. The Foster family at home in Cocoa Beach, Florida, in 1963. (From left: Robert Jr., Toni, Robert, William, and Sally.) Women of Apollo Many women worked for the space program. This watercolor sketch by Chrystal Jackson for the NASA Art Program depicts Alberta Heirt, a paymaster for Natkin & Co., at Saturn V Launch Complex 39B in the 1960s. The Impact on the SouthThe Moon race affected the Deep South more than any other region. NASA built new or expanded facilities for the Apollo program from Texas to Florida. President Kennedy and his vice president and successor Lyndon Johnson, a Texan, saw the space program as a way to lift a region still marked by poverty and racial discrimination. The Moon race coincided with the Civil Rights Movement and put NASA at the center of a difficult period of change. This cartoon is from August 25, 1963. Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, designed the Saturn rockets. NASA assembled the first stages in New Orleans, Louisiana, and tested them in Mississippi (Pearl River). The Saturn V launch site north of Cape Canaveral, Florida, became the core of the Kennedy Space Center. NASA built the Manned Spacecraft Center outside Houston, Texas, for astronaut training, mission control, and spacecraft design. What Would You Do? NASA had many of its centers in the South, where schools, public facilities, and transportation were segregated. Racial violence was common. Imagine what life was like for its African American workers. Would you have moved to the South to join the Space Race? Gemini: Preparing for Apollo Once NASA decided on a spacecraft consisting of a mothership and lander, it needed another human space program to gain the experience for a Moon landing. So NASA created the Gemini program. The Gemini program sent two-astronaut spacecraft into Earth orbit. The missions helped NASA understand and master the challenges of spacewalking, rendezvous and docking, and living for one to two weeks in space. Learning to Walk in Space To walk on the Moon or perform useful tasks in space, astronauts had to be able to leave the spacecraft—what NASA called extravehicular activity, or EVA. EVA proved more difficult than expected. Astronauts became overheated and exhausted. It took NASA until the last Gemini mission to refine the techniques and equipment to make spacewalking effective. On June 3, 1965, Edward White became the first American to walk in space. (Soviet cosmonaut Aleksei Leonov was the first person to do so.) Note the maneuvering gun in his right hand and his Gemini IV spacecraft reflected in his visor. 9/21
A Huge Challenge, Part 2 Object Highlight: Gemini VII Mercury’s “Big Brother” The Gemini spacecraft began as the Mercury Mark II, an enlarged capsule made by McDonnell Aircraft in St. Louis. As contractor for the Mercury spacecraft, the company had experience vital to Gemini’s success. Frank Borman and James Lovell spent 14 days in this cramped cockpit from December 4 to 18, 1965. The two hatches have been removed, making the cabin seem roomier than it really was. Each astronaut had only a small window in front of his face. Their mission was primarily medical. They endured experiments regarding food, waste, and sleep. Gemini VII also served as the target vehicle for Gemini VI-A during the world’s first space rendezvous. Lovell and Borman on the aircraft carrier Wasp at the end of their 14-day mission. Three years later, with William Anders on Apollo 8, they became the first humans to go into deep space and orbit the Moon. Learning to Live in Space Flying to the Moon would require missions lasting over a week; it took three days just to get there. No Mercury astronaut had spent more than 34 hours in space. Gemini missions needed to prove that humans could live in weightlessness for up to two weeks. Three Gemini missions in 1965 extended time in space from four to 14 days. Object Highlight: Vision Testing Equipment Gemini astronauts tested the impact of weightlessness on their vision. Gordon Cooper and Charles “Pete” Conrad used this testing device during Gemini V. Frank Borman and James Lovell used the vision test card during Gemini VII. Object Highlight: GH-4-C Helmet Edward White, Gemini IV This fiberglass and resin helmet has a Plexiglas visor with a gold coating to filter out ultraviolet light from the Sun. Object Highlight: Hand-Held Maneuvering Gun Edward White, Gemini IV White used this device to perform simple maneuvers while outside the spacecraft during his historic spacewalk. The two tanks produced less than 20 seconds of maneuvering gas. Object Highlight: Life Support Umbilical Edward White, Gemini IV This tether umbilical cord connected White to the spacecraft. It contains a rubber oxygen hose, four electrical connectors, and a communications lead. It also ensured that White would not float off into space. Object Highlight: Chest Pack Ventilation Control Module Edward White, Gemini IV This module served as the control center for the life-support connections provided through White’s umbilical tether. It could also provide emergency oxygen. Object Highlight: EVA Checklist Michael Collins, Gemini X Michael Collins carried this checklist card during his July 1966 spacewalk. Learning to Rendezvous in Space The Apollo command and lunar modules had to link up after a lunar landing. NASA used the Gemini program to practice rendezvous and docking in space. Gemini VI was supposed to dock with an Agena rocket stage, but the Agena failed to reach orbit. So when NASA launched Gemini VII on a 14-day medical mission in late 1965, it also launched Gemini VI-A (renumbered because of the changed mission) to meet up with it. The two spacecraft successfully rendezvoused. In 1966, Gemini VIII succeeded in docking with an Agena. Object Highlight: Harmonica and Bells Gemini VI-A With Christmas approaching, Walter Schirra and Thomas Stafford used these miniature musical instruments to play “Jingle Bells” to Mission Control as a joke. Thomas Stafford on Gemini VI-A took this photo of Gemini VII during their rendezvous on December 15, 1965. Object Highlight: Gemini-Agena Model This model was Neil Armstrong’s memento of the first space docking in history during Gemini VIII in 1966, a mission he commanded. Shortly after the Gemini capsule and unmanned Agena docked, a life-threatening crisis occurred. A thruster on the Gemini’s white adapter module misfired, forcing Armstrong and David Scott to end the mission and make an emergency splashdown in the Pacific. Name Launch Date Astronauts Duration Mission Gemini 3March 23, 1965 Virgil "Gus" Grissom, John Young4:53 hours3-orbit spacecraft test Gemini IVJune 3, 1965James McDivitt, Edward White4 daysEVA, medical Gemini VAugust 21, 1965Gordon Cooper, Charles Conrad8 daysMedical, rendezvous test Gemini VIIDecember 4, 1965Frank Borman, James Lovell14 daysMedical, rendezvous with G VI-A Gemini VI-ADecember 15, 1965Walter Schirra, Thomas Stafford1 dayRendezvous with G VII Gemini VIIIMarch 16, 1966Neil Armstrong, David Scott10:41 hoursDock w/ Agena; emergency return Gemini IX-AJune 3, 1966Thomas Stafford, Eugene Cernan3 daysRendezvous, EVA Gemini XJuly 18, 1966John Young, Michael Collins3 daysRendezvous and dock, EVA Gemini XISeptember 12, 1966Charles Conrad, Richard Gordon3 daysRendezvous and dock, EVA Gemini XIINovember 11, 1966James Lovell, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin4 daysRendezvous and dock, EVA Diverse Stories: Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin Jr. Pioneer of Rendezvous and Spacewalking Best known for being Neil Armstrong’s crewmate during the first Moon landing, Buzz Aldrin (he legally changed his name in 1988) made key contributions to Gemini. Aldrin, who had a PhD from MIT, specialized in rendezvous and helped shape the computer programs and astronaut training for it. He also made important contributions to the spacewalk. On Gemini XII he helped show that with underwater training and adequate handholds, tethers, and footholds, it was possible to work outside the spacecraft. Aldrin during one of his Gemini XII spacewalks. A Massive Increase in Rocket Power To send humans to the Moon, NASA needed a much bigger rocket than any ever built before. Its solution: the gigantic three-stage Saturn V rocket. The Saturn V had 100 times the liftoff thrust of the Redstone rocket that launched Alan Shepard and his tiny Mercury capsule into space. NASA also built a giant new launch complex in Florida at Cape Canaveral, as well as assembly buildings and test stands across the southern United States. Launch Vehicles for Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo To launch Mercury and Gemini spacecraft, NASA used ballistic missiles designed to carry nuclear warheads. For the Apollo program, huge Saturn launch vehicles were specially designed to carry the much larger lunar spacecraft. All models 1:48 scale Rocket Power Object Highlight: Mercury Redstone U.S. Army Redstone rockets were used for the two suborbital flights by Mercury astronauts. Height: 83 ft (25 m) with spacecraft Thrust: 78,000 lb (347,000 N) Propellants: Liquid oxygen and alcohol Mercury Atlas U.S. Air Force Atlas rockets were used for the four orbital flights by Mercury astronauts. Height: 95 ft (29 m) with spacecraft Thrust: 365,000 lb (1,624,000 N) Propellants: Liquid oxygen and refined kerosene Gemini Titan II U.S. Air Force Titan IIs boosted 10 two-astronaut Gemini spacecraft into orbit. Height: 108 ft (33 m) with spacecraft Thrust: 430,000 lb (1,913,000 N) at liftoff Propellants: Aerozine 50 (hydrazine) and nitrogen tetroxide Apollo Saturn IB NASA Saturn IBs launched the crews of Apollo 7; Skylab 2, 3, and 4; and the U.S. crew of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. Height: 225 ft (67 m) with spacecraft Thrust: 1.6 million lb (7,120,000 N) at liftoff Propellants: 1st stage, liquid oxygen and refined kerosene; 2nd stage, liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen Apollo Saturn V NASA Saturn Vs launched the crews of Apollos 8 through 17 and the Skylab Orbital Workshop. Height: 363 ft (111 m) with spacecraft Thrust: 7,500,000 lb (33,360,000 N) at liftoff Propellants: 1st stage, liquid oxygen and refined kerosene; 2nd and 3rd stages, liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen Can you find three rocket stages? Look at the Saturn V model. Each stage contained its own engines and propellants. The entire rocket weighed over 6 million pounds (almost 3 million kilograms)—equivalent to a Navy destroyer. Over 80% of that weight was liquid fuel. The rocket and spacecraft were stacked inside the Vertical Assembly Building on the Mobile Launcher, and then rolled out to the launch pad on the Crawler Transporter. These facilities were later adapted for the Space Shuttle and then other programs. A Giant New Launch Complex To manufacture, test, assemble, and launch the Saturn V, the world’s biggest and most powerful rocket, NASA needed huge new buildings and facilities. At its Kennedy Space Center in Florida, NASA built Launch Complex 39, which included two launch pads and the gigantic Vertical (later Vehicle) Assembly Building, the largest building in the world by volume when completed in the mid-1960s. Apollo 11 launches, July 16, 1969. The Aft End of a Saturn V Rocket If you gaze into the mirrors, you can see how the array of five giant F-1 engines at the bottom of a Saturn V looked. Together they generated the thrust need to lift a rocket 36 stories tall and as heavy as a Navy destroyer. The engines burned for two and a half minutes, propelling the rocket to 6,000 mph (9,660 km/h) and an altitude of 38 miles (61 kilometers). Then the second- and third-stage rockets took over, sending the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon. Length: 18 ft 4 in (5.6 m) Max. diameter: 11 ft 11 in (5.6 m) Weight: 18,000 lb (8,200 kg) Max. thrust: 1,522,000 lb (6.67 million N) at sea level Propellants: Liquid oxygen and RP-1 (refined kerosene) Manufacturer: Rocketdyne Division, North American Aviation Object Highlight: F-1 Engines The F-1 is still the most powerful liquid-propellant rocket engine ever built. First developed under Air Force contract in the 1950s, the F-1 became the first-stage engine for the huge NASA rocket needed to launch astronauts to the Moon. Five F-1s powered the first stage of the Saturn V. This particular F-1 is an early test engine built in 1963. It made four start tests, burning for a total of 192.6 seconds. Object Highlight: F-1 Center Engine The one-quarter section is part of the second type of F-1. Unlike the outer four engines, which moved to steer the rocket with their exhaust, the center engine was fixed in place. Wernher von Braun, who led the design of the Saturn V for NASA, poses with the F-1s of its first stage. He came to the U.S. after leading the Nazi V-2 rocket program. Soviet Competition The Soviet NK-33 Engine: Competitor of the F-1 The Soviets built the N-1 Moon rocket, about the same size as the Saturn V. But they could not produce a kerosene–liquid oxygen engine as large as the F-1. Instead the N-1 used 30 smaller engines in its first stage. A central computer could modify the thrust of individual engines to change the rocket’s direction, but that system proved too complicated. All four N-1 launches from 1969 to 1972 failed. This view of an N-1 rocket, in the final assembly building at the launch site in Soviet Kazakhstan, shows the 30 NK-33 engines that powered the first stage: 24 in the outer ring and 6 in the center. The Kuznetsov Design Bureau, which normally designed aircraft jet engines, produced the NK-33. Object Highlight: F-1 Engine Parts from Apollo 11 These objects are actual pieces of the F-1 engines that powered the Apollo 11 astronauts to the first Moon landing. The impact on the Atlantic Ocean destroyed the discarded Saturn V first stage. These pieces survived relatively intact. Bezos Expeditions recovered these objects from the ocean floor in 2013. They were conserved at the Kansas Cosmosphere in Hutchinson, Kansas. Turbopump The F-1 had a large turbopump to move the huge volume of liquid propellants out of their tanks within the 150 seconds of engine burning. To power it, a gas generator burned some of the propellants to produce a hot gas stream that spun the turbine wheel. The wheel drove the pumps for the liquid oxygen and kerosene. Lox Dome Installed on top of the injector plate, this device has two main inlets for forcing liquid oxygen (LOX) through small holes in the plate, where it was mixed with purified kerosene for burning. Injector Plate Liquid oxygen and kerosene were sprayed through hundreds of small holes on the injector plate into the combustion chamber, where they burned. The baffles, flattened by the ocean impact, regulated the flow and dampened pressure waves in the hot combustion gases. Thrust Chamber The thrust chamber contains a cylindrical combustion chamber for burning the propellants. It is the narrowest part of the bell-like F-1 nozzle. The injector plate fits on top. A Lot of Fuel Fast A liquid-fuel rocket needs a lot of propellants. The five F-1 turbopumps on the Saturn V first stage drained nearly 520,000 U.S. gallons (2 million liters) of liquid oxygen and kerosene in two and a half minutes. That’s nearly the same volume as an Olympic swimming pool. 10/21
Outfitting and Guiding the Astronauts, Part 1 To send astronauts to the Moon, NASA had to develop new ways to train, equip, and guide them. The Apollo crews needed lunar spacesuits, along with supplies and equipment for one to two weeks in space. Most training had to be conducted on the ground, so NASA built new and sophisticated simulators. Mission Control and tracking networks were expanded to support Moon missions as well. Spacesuits for the MoonDesigning a spacesuit to wear on the Moon presented many challenges. Astronauts would no longer just sit in a spacecraft or float outside. They would work on the airless lunar surface, exposed to many dangers. Experts from NASA and its contractors transformed advanced aviation pressure suits into clothing that would protect astronauts on the Moon while allowing them to move about and work. Developing a Lunar Suit While the Mercury and Gemini programs used modified pressure suits worn by pilots for high-altitude flights, Apollo astronauts needed more protection for a more demanding job in a harsh environment. A lunar spacesuit had to provide a pressurized enclosure, supply oxygen, and protect from solar radiation, large temperature variations, and tiny high-speed meteorites. Creating a lunar spacesuit took several iterations of development. Object Highlight: Apollo A1-C Pressure Suit Astronaut Frank Borman used this spacesuit for early Apollo training. NASA planned to use modified Gemini suits like this one for early Apollo missions. In 1967 a fire killed three astronauts. The agency decided to develop new suits for all missions that included better fire protection. Object Highlight: Longest Step Painting By Norman Rockwell Oil on canvas, 1965 Astronauts John Young (left) and Gus Grissom suit up for their Gemini 3 mission on March 23, 1965. The technicians are making the final adjustments. The Gemini G3C suits were modified aviation pressure suits. Object Highlight: Apollo Experimental Helmet, No. 1 This closely fitting helmet has a front opening, like the ones on Mercury and Gemini suits. It let an astronaut move his head and helmet from side-to-side. Hamilton Standard made it for ILC’s AX1-L spacesuit. Engineer Bill Peterson fits test pilot Bob Smyth in an Apollo suit with a restraint harness during a 1968 testing. Object Highlight: Apollo AX1-L Gloves These prototype gloves provided added mobility and tactile feeling. Each glove has a restraint system built into the wrist to prevent it from ballooning when pressurized. The outer strap allowed the astronaut to adjust the fit. Object Highlight: Apollo A6-L Pressure Bubble Helmet Late in the spacesuit development process, NASA switched to a Plexiglas bubble helmet. It let the astronaut move his head within, rather than rotating the helmet on a connector ring. It provided a much wider field of view than previous helmets. Object Highlight: Apollo A5-L Intravehicular Gloves These gloves were made for use inside the spacecraft. The rubber bladder was dip molded from a cast of the astronaut’s hand. Look to your left to see how the gloves are made. Apollo Lunar Suit: First VersionIn 1965, NASA awarded the contract to create an Apollo spacesuit to the International Latex Company’s Special Products Division. ILC was a small company with little government experience, so NASA matched them with Hamilton Standard as the primary contractor. ILC’s winning design proposal featured soft, flexible joints that were more comfortable than previous suits. Object Highlight: Apollo Experimental Spacesuit, No. 1 (AX1-L) This suit is one of the earliest made by ILC. It was not fitted with a thermal cover layer, which is why you can see the inner construction and restraint system. Tactile: Creating Neil Armstrong’s Spacesuit Gloves Exploring other worlds while wearing bulky gloves is difficult. Gloves protect the hands, but layers of materials inhibit one’s ability to feel. Neil Armstrong had custom-made spacesuit gloves for his Moon exploration. Examine the models on the table to discover how they were made— to fit like a glove! Plaster Hand Casts This is a plaster cast of Neil Armstrong’s right hand that began the process of making his spacesuit gloves. The hand is in what spacesuit technicians called the “neutral position.” Rubber Glove Dip Form A rubber hand shape, made from Armstrong’s plaster cast, formed the basis of the inner layer of the glove. Notice the exaggerated knuckles. Intravehicular Glove This is the glove that Armstrong wore inside the spacecraft. The rubber fingers and upper hand were made directly from the dip form. The cloth wrist gave flexibility and the metal connector provided a reliable seal to the spacesuit. Extravehicular Glove Armstrong wore this glove when exploring the surface of the Moon. The rubber finger tips allowed some touch sensation. Metal cloth on the fingers and hands protected him from cuts by sharp objects. The cloth gauntlet protected the metal glove parts from heating in the sunlight, and provided a handy surface for attaching a checklist. Apollo Lunar Suit: Second Version The forced cooperation between ILC and Hamilton Standard failed because of rivalry and mistrust. After the Apollo fire in January 1967, NASA faced an urgent deadline to complete a redesigned suit. It again selected ILC to make the spacesuit. It selected Hamilton Standard to build the backpack life support system to be used on the lunar surface. Object Highlight: Apollo A5-L Pressure Suit This is a fifth-generation ILC spacesuit prototype. The cover layer is absent. Astronauts, technicians, and engineers were most concerned with this model’s joint mobility and placement of connections. Manufacturing Apollo Spacesuits In 1965, NASA awarded International Latex Company (ILC) in Dover, Delaware, the first Apollo spacesuit contract. ILC, which manufactured gloves, bras, and other support garments, had created its Special Products Division in 1947 to make high-altitude helmets and suits for the U.S. military. As its number of employees grew, ILC moved to the nearby town of Frederica. By 1969, ILC Dover employed 900 people and manufactured all the spacesuits worn on the Moon. Seamstresses work in the ILC Dover factory. A Backpack for Walking on the Moon To leave their spacecraft and explore the Moon’s surface, astronauts carried their own crucial life support systems. The backpack supplied an astronaut with oxygen and cooling water and included communications equipment. This Portable Life Support System turned an astronaut’s spacesuit into a form-fitting spacecraft. This backpack is color-coded! Green: Astronaut cooling system Gold: Oxygen supply Red: Carbon-dioxide filtering, from exhaled oxygen White: Electrical and communications connections The Apollo 11 backpack Buzz Aldrin wore as he climbed down Eagle’s ladder weighed about 125 pounds (57 kilograms) on Earth. Fortunately the Moon has only one-sixth Earth’s gravity, so the load felt much lighter there. Object Highlight: Oxygen Purge System Cover Eugene Cernan, Apollo 17 This thermal cover is from the backpack worn by the last human to walk on the Moon. Under a microscope, one can see lunar dust still embedded in the fabric. Object Highlight: Portable Life Support System (PLSS) Backpack This PLSS backpack has its outer cover removed. An Oxygen Purge System is attached at the top. It could supply emergency oxygen for up to 30 minutes, enough time for an astronaut to return to the spacecraft. A remote controller mounted on the astronaut’s chest operated both units. The PLSS also removed carbon dioxide, supplied water to the liquid cooling garment, and provided communications and telemetry for the astronauts. Object Highlight: Remote Control Unit Worn on the front of a spacesuit, this unit connected to the backpack. The astronaut used it to monitor his life support systems and adjust the controls. How Do You Shield an Astronaut in Space? To protect an astronaut from solar radiation and particles traveling through space much faster than bullets, a spacesuit had an external cover made of many layers. The outermost was a strong Teflon-coated fiberglass layer that reflected solar radiation. Underneath it were multiple layers of lightweight, synthetic materials that could slow or stop particles that might penetrate the outer layer. Object Highlight: ILC Sewing Machine This Singer sewing machine was among the many that ILC seamstresses used to sew the fabric portions of the Apollo spacesuit. The seamstresses underwent rigorous training and testing. They had to maintain stitch length precision that would challenge the best tailors. Packing for the Moon Space Food NASA developed food for astronauts that was nutritious and eaten easily. Gelatin coatings prevented dangerous crumbs from floating off and contaminating equipment. Freeze drying and special packaging kept foods fresh. Foods were usually dehydrated and then prepared during flight by injecting the package with hot or cold water. Object Highlight: Apollo Space Food and Drinks
Commander and Command Module Pilot *Day 1 consisted of meals B and C only **CMP substituted potato soup (R) R = Rehydratable I = irradiated DB = Dry bite WP = Wet pack IMB = intermediate moisture bite SBP = Spoon-bowl packet Water for Drinking and Rehydration Apollo spacecraft carried only a small emergency supply of water. Fuel cells that produced electric power for the spacecraft also produced water for astronauts to drink. When oxygen and hydrogen were combined in the fuel cells to generate electricity, the “waste” water that resulted was collected, chemically treated, and then stored in a tank in the command module. Object Highlight: Water Decontamination System Items Apollo 11 To prevent bacteria from contaminating drinking water, astronauts used a special syringe to insert chlorine and then a buffer solution into the command module’s water tank. A small cylindrical ampule held the chlorine. The buffer ampule prevented corrosion. Astronauts had to wait 20 minutes for the chemicals to disperse before drinking the water. Object Highlight: Apple Drink Skylab For Apollo 17, Whirlpool Corporation created a new device to hold dehydrated beverage crystals that expanded as water was injected. This one came from Skylab, the space station program after Apollo. Object Highlight: Apollo Water Dispenser A water dispenser could squirt hot or cold water into food packages or directly into the astronauts’ mouths. This one was used during training. Apollo 17 astronaut Ronald Evans sips from an expandable drink package. Personal Hygiene: Waste Management Low or zero gravity complicates the basic human needs of urination and defecation, especially in a small spacecraft with no room for a toilet. The items here represent various solutions to this challenge. Object Highlight: Urine Collection Device John Glenn, Mercury MA-6 John Glenn was issued this latex rubber bag for his three-orbit Friendship 7 flight in 1962. Object Highlight: Urine Collection Transfer Assembly Apollo 9 Roll-on cuffs attached to the urine transfer device, which consisted of a metal valve and collection bag. The bag held about 40 ounces (1.2 liters) of urine. Once it was full, the astronaut transferred the urine to a spacecraft system that ejected it into space. Object Highlight: Roll-on Cuffs Bag Apollo 11 During the Apollo flights, each astronaut wore a modified condom, called a roll-on cuff, for urination. This bag contains unused ones. Object Highlight: Fecal Collection Device Apollo 11 An astronaut used this kit of bags, tissue, and a germicidal pack to deal with the tricky matter of solid waste. The used bag was packed inside a second one and then placed in a waste stowage compartment. Astronauts ate low-residue diets while in space to minimize the need for this device. Preparing for the Worst Astronauts had to be able to deal with any medical needs that arose. And in case they returned to Earth far from their planned ocean landing spot, they had supplies to help them survive at sea or in hot or arid environments. Object Highlight: Command Module Medical Kit Apollo 11 This kit held motion sickness and pain suppression injectors, first aid ointment, eye drops, nasal sprays, bandages, and an oral thermometer. It also held a variety of pills: antibiotics, antinausea and antidiarrheal medicine, stimulants, painkillers, decongestants, aspirin, and sleeping aids. Object Highlight: Lunar Module Medical Kit Apollo 11 Along with minor first aid supplies, this kit held painkillers, stimulants, aspirin, decongestants, antidiarrheal medicine, nose drops, and a syringe with an opioid pain medication. Several items are missing from this kit. Object Highlight: Spacesuit Repair Kit Apollo 11 Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin could have made minor repairs to their lunar spacesuits with this kit. It contains cloth tape, exterior patches, bladder sealant material, and extra gaskets. Astronauts Frank Borman, Neil Armstrong, John Young, and Deke Slayton practice desert survival training in Nevada in 1964. They are wearing cut-up parachutes for sun protection. Object Highlight: Surival Kit Apollo 11 Each Apollo command module had two rucksacks that provided survival equipment for up to 48 hours after landing. This kit includes water containers, a radio beacon with a spare battery, sunglasses, desalter chemicals and kit, survival lights, a machete, and sunscreen. 11/16
Outfitting and Guiding the Astronauts, Part 2 Object Highlight: F-1 Engine The F-1 is still the most powerful liquid-propellant rocket engine ever built. First developed under Air Force contract in the 1950s, it became the first-stage engine for the huge Saturn V rocket NASA developed to launch astronauts to the Moon. This particular F-1 was an early test engine built in 1963. It made four start tests, burning for a total of 192.6 seconds. Length: 18 ft 4 in (5.6 m) Max. diameter: 11 ft 11 in (5.6 m) Weight: 18,000 lb (8,200 kg) Max. thrust: 1,522,000 lb (6.67 million N) at sea level Propellants: Liquid oxygen and RP-1 (refined kerosene) Manufacturer: Rocketdyne Division, North American Aviation F-1 Center Engine The one-quarter cutaway engine above is part of the second type of F-1. Unlike the outer four engines, which moved to steer the rocket with their exhaust, the center engine was fixed in place. Object Highlight: Power to Go Painting By Paul Calle Paul Calle painted this for the NASA art program in 1969. Simulating Space Missions Because opportunities to train in space were very limited, NASA developed elaborate simulators for practicing all flight phases on the ground. Modern computer-generated imagery (CGI) did not exist in the 1960s. Instead, huge optical systems and mainframe computers were used to create realistic visual simulations. Astronauts and the entire Mission Control team spent thousands of hours rehearsing responses to every imaginable situation. The Crucial Role of Mission Control Going to the Moon would have been impossible without Mission Control in Houston. Almost every move the astronauts made was monitored, supported, or advised by Houston’s ground control team. Three shifts of about 20 controllers were supported by hundreds of engineering and science experts in back rooms. Mission Control was tied to a worldwide network of tracking stations. It could also be linked to an Apollo Mission Simulator for a full rehearsal of a flight. Simulation and Mission Control “The Great Train Wreck” That was how astronaut John Young described the strange-looking Apollo Mission Simulator, the largest and most complex simulation system ever built at that time. Separate command module and lunar module cockpits were embedded in odd-shaped boxes to provide accurate views out the windows for all mission phases. The whole thing looked like a tangled mass of metal. A Very Young Workforce In 1969 the average age of NASA employees in Mission Control was 28. Space missions were still new. So the space agency hired engineers, scientists, and mathematicians fresh out of school. They learned how to run a mission while on the job. This room at the Kennedy Space Center contains a Command Module Simulator (brown structure in the back), a Lunar Module Simulator (green, foreground), miniature spacecraft, and a model lunar surface with remote-controlled TV cameras (center). Another simulator room was built at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston. Object Highlight: Engineers and Apollo Simulator By Chrystal Jackson Chrystal Jackson made this watercolor sketch for the NASA Art Program. It shows engineers training the astronauts in the Apollo Mission Simulator at Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Object Highlight: Instructor Operator Station Command Simulator, Kennedy Space Center The simulator supervisor could devise fiendishly difficult emergencies for the astronauts. All flight phases could be simulated, from launch to landing. The black-and-white “eight ball” attitude indicator (left panel) was linked to the identical ones on the cockpit control panel. Dan Bland sits at the Instructor Operator Station, probably for an Apollo 17 simulation in 1972. Object Highlight: Flight Rehearsal By Nicholas Solovioff Watercolor on paper, 1968 The Command Module Simulator was a favorite subject of artists in the NASA Art Program. At the top of the right-hand stairs, where three astronauts are about to ascend, was an exact working duplicate of the cockpit. Diverse Stories: Francis "Frank" E. Hughes Simulator Pioneer In 1966, and fresh out of college, Frank Hughes took a job at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center setting up the Apollo Mission Simulator. He soon became uniquely familiar with the complex machine. He served as simulator instructor and as the “go-to guy” whenever questions arose about its operations. Hughes later became chief of the Space Flight Training Division in NASA’s Houston space center. Simulating the Stars Creating Realistic Window Views One of the greatest challenges engineers faced was making the view out the windows of the command and lunar module simulators look real. The astronauts had to be able to see stars in space, the lunar surface, or the other spacecraft during a rendezvous. Views in space had to have a realistic background of the Moon or stars. This was achieved using the Star Ball [circled in red above] attached to the simulator. Object Highlight: Star Ball Command Module Simulator, Kennedy Space Center The star images projected from this computer-controlled ball recreated what astronauts would see through their spacecraft window. The constellations on the ball are mirror-image reversed, because they were projected via a complex series of lenses and mirrors. The starfield was accurate enough that the astronauts could practice navigating by it. Object Highlight: Houston By Mitchell Jameson Oil on board, ca. 1971 This painting depicts the Mission Operations Control Room as seen from the glassed-off VIP seating area, probably during Apollo 15 in 1971. The main screen shows the orbital track of the command module and an icon for the lunar module’s location. A TV display (upper right) shows the helmet of an astronaut on the lunar surface. Object Highlight: Mercury Capsule Icon This icon, representing a Mercury spacecraft, moved along a track on a world map in Mercury Control. By looking at the display, controllers could see at a glance where the spacecraft was and when it was near a tracking station. The Origins of Mssion Control NASA engineer Christopher Kraft invented the mission control concept in 1959–61 when preparing for the Mercury missions. He needed a global tracking network, a way to monitor and control the flight, and a means to communicate with the astronaut as often as possible. The first control center was at Cape Canaveral, near the Florida launch site. Beginning with Gemini IV in 1965, mission control shifted to Houston, Texas. Mercury Control at Cape Canaveral monitors John Glenn’s flight in 1962. The circles indicate the range of the tracking stations. Glenn’s three orbits are inscribed into the map. The bright spot on the map (lower right) is the Mercury capsule icon seen in the case to your left. Glenn had just passed over Australia on his first orbit. Mission Control and the Simulators Controllers took part in mission simulations during training along with the astronauts. Communications were wired between Mission Control and the Apollo Mission Simulator to practice normal and emergency procedures. Simulator operators created failures and major problems, which the astronauts and controllers had to solve and master. Through countless hours of practice, crews and their ground support were forged into efficient teams. Mission Operations Control Room (MOCR) The MOCR was Mission Control’s nerve center. The 19 controllers here monitored every movement of the spacecraft and its crew. They double-checked everything, reacted to the unexpected, and assisted the astronauts in dealing with problems. The Flight Director (#5 on the diagram) was the conductor of the orchestra that was Mission Control. He coordinated responses from the different controllers and made decisions about the flight. First Row 4. PAO
6. INCO
11. Surgeon
17. Booster
A. Glass fronted viewing room seating 74 authorized visitors B: Display and projection area Apollo 13: "Houston, we've had a problem" Apollo 13 launched in April 1970, as NASA’s third lunar landing mission. As the spacecraft headed toward the Moon, an oxygen tank exploded in its service module. The blast crippled Apollo 13. Mission Control worked around the clock to save astronauts James Lovell, Fred Haise, and Jack Swigert. Mission controllers instructed the crew on how to shut down the command and service modules and use their lunar module as a “lifeboat.” They helped the astronauts solve several life-threatening problems and brought them safely home. The Carbon Dioxide Crisis The crew faced a difficult three-day return to Earth. They were short of water and electrical power and were very cold. The carbon dioxide they exhaled was building up in their air. The carbon dioxide filters in the lunar module, which they now occupied, were designed to work only for two days and were not interchangeable with those in the command module. One set was round, the other square. “There’s one whole side of that thing missing!” said Jim Lovell when he saw the service module through the lunar module window. The Apollo 13 astronauts had just jettisoned it in preparation for reentry on April 17, 1970. The oxygen tank explosion had blown a skin panel completely off. Fitting a Square Peg in a Round Hole Mission controllers figured out how to feed air through the square command module filters into the round holes where the lunar module filters fit. They used materials in the spacecraft—plastic bags, cue cards, spacesuit hoses, and duct tape. They carefully described to the astronauts how to build the makeshift adapter. It worked perfectly. Object Highlight: Command Module Lithium Hydroxide Filter Object Highlight: Lunar Module Lithium Hydroxide Filter Object Highlight: Lithium Hydroxide Canister Mockup Jack Swigert (right) holds some of the gear used to adapt the carbon dioxide filters. The brown box with duct tape on it is one of them. The exhausted but elated Apollo 13 crew are seen after their return to Earth on April 17, 1970. (From left: lunar module pilot Fred Haise, commander Jim Lovell, and command module pilot Jack Swigert.) Swigert was a last-minute substitute for Ken Mattingly, who had been exposed to German measles. Object Highlight: Eugene Kranz’s Apollo 13 Vest The leader of Mission Control’s “White Team,” Kranz wore a different white suit vest for each mission from Gemini IX in 1966 through Apollo 17 in 1972. He wore plain vests like this one during missions; he reserved fancier ones for celebrating afterward. All were hand sewn by his wife, Marta. As was the custom in Mission Control, white was retired from flight team colors after Kranz’s retirement. Object Highlight: Apollo 13 Mission Patch Button On his vest, Kranz wore this button depicting the Apollo 13 mission patch. The Latin phrase means “From the Moon, knowledge.” Diverse Stories: Eugene F. Kranz Master Flight Director Ohio native “Gene” Kranz was an aeronautical engineer, fighter pilot, and flight test expert before joining NASA in 1960. He quickly became deputy to Chris Kraft, the creator of Mission Control. Kranz served as a flight director—the “conductor” of the orchestra that was Mission Control—on many missions, starting with Gemini IV in 1965. He was lead flight director during the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission and, most famously, during the Apollo 13 crisis. Eugene Kranz works at the flight director console during Gemini IV. Object Highlight: Lunar Landscape Chesley Bonestell Oil on canvas, 1957 On March 28, 1957, six months before the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the Boston Museum of Science unveiled this huge mural in the lobby of its Charles Hayden Planetarium. Bonestell portrayed the Moon as everyone expected it to be: with sharp peaks, jagged canyons, and steep crater walls. In 1970, that museum took down the mural after pictures from the Moon showed that the constant rain of meteorites and space dust rounded off lunar hills and mountains. The Smithsonian acquired the mural in 1976 and restored it for this exhibition. Diverse Stories: Chesley Bonestell Pioneering Space Artist Chesley Bonestell was a renowned architect and Hollywood special effects artist before he became the most important space artist. Life magazine published a spread of his extraterrestrial scenes in 1944. In 1949 he collaborated with writer Willy Ley to produce the book The Conquest of Space. He teamed with producer George Pal and science fiction writer Robert Heinlein to create the movie Destination Moon (1950). He also contributed to the influential Collier’s magazine series on spaceflight. Bonestell died in 1986 at age 98. Object Highlight: Ranger Taking a Closer Look Nine Ranger spacecraft were launched from 1961 to 1965. Their mission was to send back images until the moment of impact on the Moon. Only the last three, Rangers 7, 8, and 9, succeeded. Engineers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory assembled this replica from spare parts. It’s configured like the final four Rangers. Manufacturer: NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Object Highlight: Surveyor Testing the Surface These lunar landers took surface images and confirmed that the Moon could safely support spacecraft and astronauts. Five of the seven launched between 1966 and 1968 made successful soft landings. This engineering model was used for tests. It’s configured like Surveyor 3, the first to have a scoop-and-claw surface sampler. The Apollo 12 crew visited Surveyor 3 while on the Moon. Manufacturer: Hughes Aircraft Company Object Highlight: Lunar Orbiter Lunar Orbiters mapped the Moon to prepare for the Apollo landings. All five launched in 1966 and 1967 were successful. A film camera adapted from a secret spy satellite program took the photos. It scanned the film and sent the images transmitted to Earth. The oval silver pressure vessel contains the camera. Manufacturer: The Boeing Company How far is the Moon? The Moon orbits around the Earth at a distance of about 250,000 miles (400,000 kilometers). You can think of that either as very far or very near. The International Space Station orbits 1,000 times closer. Venus, our nearest planetary neighbor, at its closest is 100 times farther away than the Moon. This 2015 photo taken from space by DSCOVR (Deep Space Climate Observatory) reveals the heavily cratered far side of the Moon in front of the Earth. Sides of the Moon The Moon’s Two Sides The two sides of the Moon are very different. The side facing away from Earth is almost all light-colored rock completely covered by craters from asteroid and comet impacts. But the near side has large areas of smooth, dark plains formed by lava. These create the “face” we imagine as the “Man in the Moon.” No “Dark Side of the Moon” The Moon circles the Earth about every 28 days. It also rotates once in that same time, keeping the same side facing us. As a result, day and night are each 14 Earth days long. During a new moon phase, the near side is dark to us—but the far side is bathed in daylight! Moon Facts
Apollo 8 astronauts took this historic photo on December 24, 1968, as they orbited the Moon, the first humans to do so. As soon as NASA released it, the picture became world famous. It beautifully captures the Earth as an “oasis” in the vastness of space, as crewmember James Lovell put it. Image Highlight: Apollo 17 Panorama On the wall mural you can see an expansive view of the Taurus-Littrow valley on the edge of the Sea of Serenity, where Apollo 17’s lunar module landed. On December 11, 1972, astronaut Eugene Cernan took the photos that make up this mosaic. Harrison Schmitt is working in the foreground. Compare this 1972 photomural to Chesley Bonestell’s 1957 mural on the opposite wall. Before we went to the Moon, we thought the landscape had sharp, jagged peaks and craters. But the constant impact of cosmic dust and meteorites rounds off every surface. Object Highlight: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, Structural Verification Unit The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) has provided the highest resolution imagery of lunar features ever obtained. Since its launch in 2009, it has mapped the Moon and increased our understanding of volcanism, global shrinkage, and other geological processes there. It has also assessed lunar radiation hazards and photographed Apollo landing sites. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center made this version, called the Structural Verification Unit (SVU), to test the spacecraft structure during the severe vibrations of launch. Dimensions, (solar panel and antenna stowed): 12ft 8in x 9ft x 8ft 7in (3.86 m x 2.7 m x 2.6 m) Weight, LRO SVU: about 1,100 lb (500 kg) Weight, fuelled spacecraft at launch: 4,224 lb (1,916 kg) 12/21
Humans Reach the Moon, Part 1 On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first humans to walk on the Moon. That historic achievement followed years of planning and preparation. The United States sent robotic explorers, found landing sites, recovered from a tragic accident, tested the Apollo spacecraft, launched pioneering missions, and developed the experiments and equipment for the lunar landing. By the time Apollo 11 reached the Moon, the whole world was watching. The Apollo 11 crew who made the first landing on the Moon are (from left): Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin. Finding a Landing Site Data and images from Rangers, Surveyors, and Lunar Orbiters provided the crucial information NASA needed to choose landing sites for Apollo. The sites NASA selected balanced engineering, safety, and scientific concerns. These six sites were chosen for the Apollo missions. For safety, NASA chose relatively smooth sites on flat lava plains for the first landings. As confidence increased, more challenging, scientifically interesting sites were picked for later missions. The first three Apollo landings were in the original “Apollo zone” which extended 90° along the Moon’s equator and 5° north and south of it. Landing near the equator used less fuel, made returning easier in an emergency, and allowed for longer launch windows from Earth. Scouting the Moon with Robots Before astronauts could go to the Moon, mission planners needed to understand the lunar surface and find suitable places to land. To learn more about the Moon, NASA created three robotic spacecraft programs. Ranger spacecraft took close-up photos of the surface. Surveyor landers proved it was safe to land on the Moon. Lunar Orbiters mapped landing sites. Object Highlight: Ranger Getting a Close Look Nine Ranger spacecraft were launched from 1961 to 1965. Their mission was to send back images until the moment of impact on the Moon. Only the last three, Rangers 7, 8, and 9, succeeded. Engineers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory assembled this replica from spare parts. It’s configured like the final four Rangers. Ranger images showed a landscape that appeared safe for landing. Boulders indicated that the terrain could support their heavy weight. This picture was taken by Ranger 8, which crashed less than 40 miles (64 kilometers) from where Apollo 11 would land. Object Highlight: Surveyor Testing the Surface These lunar landers took surface images and confirmed that the Moon could safely support spacecraft and astronauts. Five of the seven launched between 1966 and 1968 made successful soft landings. This engineering model was used for tests. It’s configured like Surveyor 3, the first to have a scoop-and-claw surface sampler. The Apollo 12 crew visited Surveyor 3 while on the Moon. Surveyor 5 gathered the first data on the composition of the lunar soil using this Alpha-scattering Surface Analyzer. Object Highlight: Lunar Orbiter Selecting a Landing Site Lunar Orbiters mapped the Moon to prepare for the Apollo landings. All five launched in 1966 and 1967 were successful. A film camera adapted from a secret spy satellite program took the photos. It scanned the film and sent the images to Earth. The oval silver pressure vessel contains the camera. Lunar Orbiter 2’s dramatic low-altitude view of Copernicus crater. The central peaks are 1,300 feet (400 meters) high. Soviet Robots Again Are First The Soviet Union scored two more lunar firsts in 1966. Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to land intact on the Moon. Luna 10 was the first to orbit the Moon. They beat U.S. Surveyor and Lunar Orbiter spacecraft by several months. These and later landers and orbiters supported a secret program to land cosmonauts on the Moon. It failed. Diverse Stories: Gregori Babakin As head of the Lavochkin Design Bureau, Gregori Babakin directed Soviet efforts after 1965 to explore the Moon and the solar system with robotic spacecraft. Luna 9 took photos and proved the surface could support its weight. It was not a “soft lander” like Surveyor. Instead, it had air bags to cushion it during a low-speed impact, after which the “petals” opened. Britain’s Jodrell Bank Radio Observatory intercepted images from Luna 9 like this one, after it became the first spacecraft to land on the lunar surface. Sea of Tranquility Why the Sea of Tranquility? The first landing site, the one used by Apollo 11, was chosen for safety rather than science. The southwestern Sea of Tranquility was flat. Uneven sites could pose dangers because as the Sun rose, shadows would shorten, making it harder for the astronauts to see craters and boulders. In the event of a launch delay, there was a backup landing site farther to the west. The Sea of Tranquility is shown in a photograph taken from orbit during the Apollo 11 mission. Its landing site is on the smooth plains in the top center near the line between day and night. Teaching Pilots Geology Harrison Schmitt of Apollo 17 was the only professional geologist among the astronauts. The rest were fighter pilots. Training in geology began early in the Apollo program, and many astronauts became enthusiastic students. As the landing sites were selected, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and university geologists trained crews for specific targets. Astronauts sometimes went on grueling field trips to desert, volcanic, and asteroid impact locations in the United States, Canada, and Iceland. USGS scientist Gordon Swann assists Apollo 15 astronaut David Scott during training in the Cinder Lake crater field near Flagstaff, Arizona. Diverse Stories: Eugene M. Shoemaker Lunar Science Pioneer Eugene Shoemaker laid the foundation for understanding cratering throughout the solar system. He recognized the importance of geologic mapping for landing site selection and pioneered techniques for mapping planetary bodies. A strong advocate for including science in Apollo, Shoemaker also developed astronaut field training. Although health issues thwarted his dream of going to the Moon, some of Shoemaker’s ashes were carried there on the Lunar Prospector spacecraft in 1998. Eugene Shoemaker trains astronauts at Meteor Crater near Flagstaff, Arizona. “Fire in the Cockpit!” On January 27, 1967, during a countdown rehearsal for the first Apollo crew, fire broke out inside the command module. Unable to open the spacecraft hatch, the astronauts died from inhaling toxic gases. The loss of Virgil “Gus” Grissom, Edward White, and Roger Chaffee was a tragic setback. NASA responded by overhauling the entire spacecraft—command, service, and lunar modules. The redesign delayed the first crew launch until late 1968, but it contributed to the success of the Apollo program. The Accident The astronauts entered the spacecraft at 1:00 p.m., January 27, 1967, for a practice countdown. Just after 6:30, launch control heard someone, probably Roger Chaffee, announce over the intercom: “Fire, I smell fire.” Two seconds later, Ed White yelled, “Fire in the cockpit!” Spacecraft technicians ran toward the sealed Apollo command module, but it ruptured before they could reach it. The intense heat and dense smoke hampered rescue efforts. A medical board determined the astronauts had died of asphyxiation. Virgil “Gus” Grissom and Roger Chaffee were buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Edward White was buried at West Point. Redesigning the Spacecraft NASA convened an expert panel to examine what had gone wrong.Its accident report insisted on three key changes:
This accident report diagram highlights all the flammable materials in the command module before the fire. Object Highlight: Beta Cloth Engineers at DuPont and Owens-Corning coated fiberglass with Teflon to create Beta, a fire-resistant cloth used on the outer layers of spacesuits and other cockpit objects. They engineered it to withstand temperatures up to 1,500°F (815°C), while providing more strength than steel. It was one way to reduce fire danger for the astronauts. A Quicker Escape As the fire tragically showed, astronauts needed a way to get out quickly. White had not even been able to remove the inner of two hatches before the three men were overcome by fumes. NASA and contractor North American Rockwell discarded the complicated two-hatch design. To replace it, they developed a single, unified hatch that an astronaut could unlatch simply by pumping a handle. Object Highlight: Block I Inner Hatch and Heat Shield Hatch Apollo 4 The Block I hatch is the type that trapped the three Apollo astronauts when fire broke out in their spacecraft. The inner hatch opened inward, which made for a better pressure seal, but it was cumbersome to operate. Then the heat shield hatch had to be opened. Astronauts struggled to open both in less than 90 seconds. These two hatches flew on Apollo 4 in November 1967. A mission with no crew, it was the first launch of the huge Saturn V rocket and the first Apollo flight after the fire. Object Highlight: Block II Unified Hatch Apollo 11 After the fire, engineers developed the Block II unified hatch, which was mounted on hinges and opened outward. While on the launch pad, astronauts could simply pump the handle to unlock the hatch. From the outside, launch crews could insert a tool. This hatch is from the Apollo 11 Command Module Columbia, which you can see nearby. To Make a Quick Escape… You would pump the striped handle (on the left) five times to unlock the latches. Then you’d push out. The hinges (on the right) would swing the hatch open. Soviet Competition: Losing the Moon Race The Soviet Union created two programs to send cosmonauts to the Moon. One involved looping around the Moon and the other landing on its surface. Neither ever launched a crew. Given how many firsts the Soviet Union had scored early in the Space Race, these failures were surprising. A lack of adequate resources and an inability to respond quickly to technological setbacks doomed Soviet efforts to beat America to the Moon. Time magazine published this cover in early December 1968. Many believed the Soviet Union was on the verge of launching cosmonauts around the Moon. Apollo 8 was scheduled to launch on December 21. The Soviet spacecraft was not ready. The Soyuz 1 Tragedy The Soviet Union suffered its own tragic space loss on April 23, 1967, three months after the deaths of three American astronauts. Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov was killed on impact after Soyuz 1’s parachute failed to open properly. He had spent his one day in space dealing with a series of dangerous systems failures. Soyuz was the Earth-orbiting version of a spacecraft that could carry cosmonauts to the Moon. The Zond Lunar ProgramIn 1968, the Soviets began testing spacecraft to send cosmonauts around the Moon. The unpiloted test versions were named Zond. After two looped around the Moon and returned to Earth in fall 1968, it appeared the Soviets might send a human near the Moon first. In fact, both missions had problems that would have threatened cosmonauts’ lives. In December 1968, the Apollo 8 astronauts became the first humans to orbit the Moon. The Soviets secretly canceled their human missions. Zond 5 returned its animal cargo safely to Earth after a trip around the Moon. It should have landed on Soviet territory, but instead splashed down in the Indian Ocean. A U.S. spy satellite took this photo of the giant Soviet N-1 booster rocket just before its first launch failure in February 1969. The Lunar Landing Program To land on the Moon, a small lander, piloted by one cosmonaut, would descend to the lunar surface, while a second cosmonaut would remain in orbit in a spacecraft much like the Zond. To achieve this, they need to develop a lander and a large booster rocket. The giant N-1 booster, the size of the U.S. Saturn V, failed on all four test launches from 1969 to 1972. That ended any hope of landing a cosmonaut on the Moon. The Science Museum in London, England, exhibited a complete Soviet lunar module in 2015. It was designed to carry only a single cosmonaut. Object Highlight: Apollo 8 Maps The Apollo 8 crew carried maps of the lunar surface prepared specifically for their mission. The maps identified landmarks to sight and photograph. Object Highlight: Apollo 8 Plaque for Neil Armstrong The close connection between the success of Apollo 8 and the lunar landing is symbolized by this plaque. Borman, Lovell, and Anders presented it to Neil Armstrong, commander of Apollo 11. Armstrong was backup commander for Apollo 8. Stepping Stones to a Landing Nearly two years after the launch pad fire that killed Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee, Apollo astronauts began launching into space in redesigned and much safer spacecraft. The first four crew missions, Apollo 7, 8, 9, and 10, in late 1968 and early 1969 were spectacular successes. NASA was now ready to attempt the first human landing on the Moon. Apollo 7 Earth Orbit Test Launched: October 11, 1968 On their 11-day Earth-orbit mission, the crew tested the redesigned command and service modules. Their flight duration equaled that of a long Apollo lunar landing mission. Despite the crew getting colds, they achieved all their objectives. Key Milestones
Object Highlight: Apollo 7 TV Camera The astronauts made live broadcasts from space with this black-and-white RCA camera. This type was also used on Apollo 8. The attached 100 mm wide-angle lens was the one used most often. Apollo 8 First to the Moon Launched: December 21, 1968 For the first time in history, humans traveled into deep space and to the Moon. During their six-day mission, three astronauts orbited the Moon for 20 hours in the command and service modules. (The lunar module was not yet available.) They took the first color pictures of “Earthrise” and made a Christmas Eve broadcast from lunar orbit. Key Milestones
Apollo 9 Earth Orbit Rehearsal Launched: March 3, 1969 The 10-day Apollo 9 mission was the first time that astronauts flew the lunar module. It was also the first combined flight of the command and service modules with the lunar module. The crew rehearsed many aspects of a lunar landing mission in Earth orbit. Key Milestones
The Apollo Spacecraft The cone-shaped command module, the command center and residence for the astronauts, contained navigation and life-support equipment. The cylindrical service module contained the propulsion system needed to maneuver into lunar orbit and return to Earth. The spidery lunar module was the landing craft in which two astronauts descended to the surface. Apollo Spacecraft Parts
Apollo 9 Lunar Module Spider, with legs extended, was photographed by David Scott in Command Module Gumdrop. This was the first Apollo mission on which the spacecraft were given names, as call signs were needed when the two separated. Lunar Module Snoopy’s ascent stage approaches Command Module Charlie Brown after its successful practice descent. Cartoonist Charles Schulz had allowed NASA to use characters from his Peanuts comic strip for its safety program, so the Apollo 10 crew named its spacecraft after two of them. Mission Launch DateAstronautsDurationMissionApollo 7October 11, 1968Walter Schirra, Walter Cunninghame, Donn Eisele11 daysCommand and service modules (CSM) spacecraft test Apollo 8December 21, 1968Frank Borman, James Lovell, William Anders6 days1st lunar orbit mission, CSM spacecraft test Apollo 9March 3, 1969James McDivitt, David Scott, Russell Schweickart10 daysCSM/Lunar module (LM) Earth orbit test; 1st LM flight with crew Apollo 10May 18, 1969Thomas Stafford, John Young, Eugene Cernan10 daysLunar orbit dress rehearsal for Apollo 11 landing Apollo 11July 16, 1969Armstrong, Michael Collins, Buzz Aldrin8 days1st lunar landing Apollo 12November 14, 1969Charles Conrad, Richard Gordon, Alan Bean10 daysPrecision lunar landing near Surveyor 3 Apollo 13April 11, 1970James Lovell, John Swigert, Fred Haise6 daysLunar landing cancelled, emergency return Apollo 14January 31, 1971Alan Shepard, Stuart Roosa, Edgar Mitchell10 daysLunar landing Apollo 15July 26, 1972David Scott, Alfred Worden, James Irwin12 daysLunar landing with rover Apollo 16April 16, 1972John Young, Thomas Mattingly, Charles Duke11 daysLunar landing with rover Apollo 17December 7, 1972Eugene Cernan, Ronald Evans, Harrison Schmitt12 daysLunar landing with rover Apollo 10 Lunar Descent Rehearsal Launched: May 18, 1969 Apollo 10 was the first mission to send the command and service modules, with the lunar module, to the Moon. The astronauts made a full dress rehearsal of the Apollo 11 mission, with the exception of actually landing. The eight-day mission achieved all its objectives. Key Milestones
Object Highlight: First Spacesuit on the Moon Neil Armstrong’s A-7L Lunar Spacesuit Apollo 11 Neil Armstrong wore this spacesuit when he made his historic “one small step” onto the surface of the Moon on July 20, 1969. Before and after his two-and-a-half-hour lunar walk, he wore it inside the lunar module, but without the special gold visor helmet and with different gloves. Armstrong’s spacesuit is basically a form-fitting spacecraft. It provided air to breathe; protected him from temperature extremes, radiation, and high-speed meteoritic particles; and allowed him to communicate with others. The A-7L was the seventh version of the Apollo suit built by ILC Industries in Delaware. It is displayed with Armstrong’s lunar exploration visor assembly and extravehicular gloves. Buzz Aldrin on the Moon. Reflected in his visor is Armstrong taking the picture, as well as part of their lunar module, Eagle. What Was Left on the Moon? Armstrong’s life-support backpack is still on the surface, along with his lunar overshoes, which made the historic first footprints. An hour or two after their walk, Armstrong and Aldrin opened the hatch and discarded these items, and others, to reduce weight for their launch the next day. Conserving Neil Armstrong’s Spacesuit In 2015, the Museum launched a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign to help conserve Neil Armstrong’s spacesuit. The funds allowed conservators to engineer and insert a new mannequin support system, provide a climate-controlled case, and document the suit and its materials. Spacesuits Are Surprisingly Fragile Even though they withstood the hazards of space, spacesuits were built to be worn on one mission, not to last forever. Their 1960s fabrics, rubbers, and plastics degrade over time. The Smithsonian is striving to preserve this and other historic spacesuits for future generations. The openings allow air to circulate, so harmful chemicals do not build up inside. The exhibit case has systems to maintain temperature and humidity near levels ideal for preservation. Museum staff prepare the Armstrong spacesuit for a CT scan during conservation. Diverse Stories: Neil Alden Armstrong Pioneering Test Pilot and Lunar Explorer Born in Wapakoneta, Ohio, Neil Armstrong was an aeronautical engineer and a Navy fighter pilot during the Korean War. He joined the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics—soon renamed NASA— as a test pilot in 1955. At NASA’s Flight Research Center in Southern California, Armstrong tested many pioneering high-speed aircraft, notably the X-15 rocket plane. He became an astronaut in 1962. Armstrong commanded the Gemini VIII mission in 1966 and made the first successful docking in space. As Apollo 11 commander, he made the first Moon landing with Buzz Aldrin and became the first human to step onto the Moon. "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." - Neal Armstrong Neil Armstrong, after an X-15 rocket plane flight in 1960. 13/21
Humans Reach the Moon, Part 2 Object Highlight: Columbia The Apollo 11 Command Module Columbia was the only part of the spacecraft from the first Moon landing expedition to return to Earth. After serving as the mothership in lunar orbit, Columbia carried the crew and their precious lunar samples through the fiery reentry into Earth’s atmosphere. After Columbia’s triumphant 50-state tour in 1970–1971, NASA transferred it to the Museum for preservation and display. Height: 10 ft 7 in (3.23 m) Diameter: 12 ft 10 in (3.91 m) Weight: 11,700 lb (5,307 kg) at splashdown Manufacturer: North American Rockwell, Downey, CA Columbia on the deck of the aircraft carrier USS Hornet shortly after recovery from the ocean. The spacecraft was still covered with remnants of the reflective tape scorched by the heat of reentry. Michael Collins: The Lonliest Man “I knew I was alone in a way that no Earthling has ever been before.” While Armstrong and Aldrin were taking their historic steps on the Moon, Michael Collins was alone in lunar orbit inside Columbia. He was completely isolated from all of humanity whenever he passed behind the Moon. Conducting observations, maintenance, and communications activities carefully planned in advance, Collins had a unique vantage point for this historic event. Collins in the Apollo command module simulator during training. Object Highlight: Omega Speedmaster Chronograph Michael Collins, Apollo 11 The VELCRO® brand strap allowed Collins to attach the chronograph on the outside of his spacesuit during launch and reentry. This top view of Columbia was taken from Eagle in lunar orbit. The command module is covered with silver reflective tape for temperature regulation. Most of the tape burned off during reentry, and NASA removed the rest. Reaction Control Thrusters Small engines around Columbia allowed the crew to position it before and during reentry. These thrusters used two propellants that ignited on contact, which increased safety and reliability. Aft Compartment The section around and below the crew compartment is divided into 24 bays. It contains 10 reaction control engines and held the tanks for those thrusters. It also has water tanks and crushable ribs designed to help absorb the force of impact during landing. Object Highlight: Command Module Operations Checklist Michael Collins, Apollo 11 Astronauts relied on checklists to perform tasks, so that no steps were missed or overlooked. Object Highlight: Command Module Pilot Solo Book Michael Collins, Apollo 11 This book contains instructions, flight plans, and contingencies for Collins while he tended to Columbia alone. Object Highlight: Inflight Coverall Garment Michael Collins, Apollo 11 Collins wore this clothing for much of the Apollo 11 mission. Only when he put on his spacesuit for crucial maneuvers did he put them away. Diverse Stories: Michael Collins “ The Best Ship to Come Down the Line. God Bless Her.” - Michael Collins, Apollo 11 Astronaut Test Pilot, Astronaut, Museum Director Michael Collins was born in 1930 in Rome, Italy, where his father was a U.S. military attaché. He attended West Point and became an Air Force fighter pilot, and later an experimental test pilot in California. Collins became a NASA astronaut in 1963. He served as pilot on the Gemini X mission in 1966 and as command module pilot on Apollo 11 in 1969. He was the director of the National Air and Space Museum, 1971–1978. Components of Columbia The command module contained the main crew cabin and all systems needed for reentering Earth’s atmosphere and parachuting to a landing. The service module was attached to the base of Columbia. It contained oxygen, electrical andcommunications systems, the spacecraft’s main engine, attitude control jets and propellants, and other critical equipment. Can you find the handles? Why have handles on the outside? In an emergency, astronauts in the lunar module might need to spacewalk over to the command module. On later missions, handles were used for planned spacewalks to recover film from the service module. Crew Compartment Columbia’s crew compartment is about the size of the inside of a small car. It has three crew couches for use during launch, landing, and maneuvers. In space, the astronauts could remove the center couch to make more room. The lower equipment bay under their feet had room for them to stretch. It also contained storage lockers and a navigation station. Forward Compartment The section around the top contained the docking tunnel, parachutes, two reaction-control engines, and other equipment needed for landing on Earth. While docked to the lunar module, the crew used the tunnel to move between the two spacecraft. During flight this section was covered by the forward heatshield, which jettisoned at an altitude of about 25,000 feet (8,000 meters) so the parachutes could deploy. The Apollo 17 command module descends on its three main parachutes. Hatch Opening Columbia’s main hatch, or door, is displayed behind you. The astronauts entered and exited through the hatch opening on the launch pad and after landing. The hinged hatch could also be opened for an emergency spacewalk if docking with the lunar module failed. Five Windows IMAGE: Above view of the Apollo 17 command module, showing its five windows (Source: NASA). The command module had windows for different purposes. Forward-facing rendezvous windows were needed for docking with the lunar module. The two square side windows and the round hatch window gave visibility for photography. The hatch window also aided crew awareness in case they needed to make an emergency escape on the launch pad. Protection from Reentry’s Fierce Heat Temperatures can reach 3,000°F (1,650°C) upon reentry to Earth. Columbia reentered Earth’s atmosphere at over 24,000 mph (38,000 km/h)—nearly 50% faster than spacecraft reentering from low Earth orbit. Its blunt shape created a shock wave in front of the spacecraft to deflect most of the resulting frictional heating. A strong protective barrier was still needed. Almost the entire exterior was covered with a specially constructed resin and fiberglass heatshield that ablated (eroded) during reentry. Evaporation of heatshield material carried away heat not deflected by the shock wave. Workers in Lowell, Massachusetts, fill the cells comprising the heatshield. All 370,000 had to be done by hand with a tool similar to a common caulking gun. Upon return from the Moon, the Apollo 11 service module broke into many pieces before burning up in the atmosphere. It lacked a protective heat shield like that on the command module. Object Highlight: Apollo Command Module Wind Tunnel Model This wind tunnel model is much like the one depicted in the photo below. An electrically heated arc jet blasts a wind tunnel model, simulating the frictional heating of an Apollo command module during reentry. The jet could heat the air stream to about 9,000°F (5,000°C). Object Highlight: Ablated Apollo Heatshield Sample This sample is from an Apollo command module flown on a suborbital test in 1966. It includes the steel base and shows how the filling material was ablated (eroded) into gray ash by the intense heat of reentry. Object Highlight: Unablated Apollo Heatshield Sample Made of Avcoat 5026-39 and fiberglass, this sample has not undergone ablation, the erosion of heatshield material by the intense heat of reentry. Object Highlight: Apollo Heatshield Manufacturing Model This model shows the various production stages for producing the Apollo spacecraft heatshield. It begins at the left with the substrate material, several coatings, a honeycomb supporting structure, a cell-by-cell filling with resin, and subsequent coatings and curing. Materials (left to right):
Apollo 8 astronauts took this historic photo on December 24, 1968, as they orbited the Moon, the first humans to do so. As soon as NASA released it, the picture became world famous.It beautifully captures the Earth as an “oasis” in the vastness of space, as crewmember James Lovell put it. Apollo 11 Timeline of Key Events
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Humans Reach the Moon, Part 3 On July 20, 1969, the Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle separated from the Command Module Columbia and descended toward the lunar surface. It touched down a short time later, making Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin the first humans to land on the surface of the Moon. That evening, the two astronauts stepped down from their spacecraft and became the first to walk on another world. From left: Neil A. Armstrong, commander; Michael Collins, command module pilot; and Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrin, lunar module pilot. Witnessing History Around the world, 300 to 400 million people experienced Apollo 11 through television. The event was aired live, including the historic Moon walk, which featured ghostly black-and-white footage broadcast from the lunar module. Most Americans experienced the event at home. Broadcast TV became the main medium through which people learned about the mission. The broadcasts took place in the midst of a troubled time in the United States. Many citizens marveled at the achievement, but questioned the billions of dollars it cost. CBS anchorman Walter Cronkite holds the model, probably during a broadcast. Object Highlight: Walter Cronkite’s Lunar Module Model CBS-TV anchorman Walter Cronkite used this model while on the air to illustrate the Apollo lunar landings. Among those who reported on television, none has been as closely identified with the space program as Cronkite. Berliners stand in front of a TV shop and look through the window to observe the start of the Apollo 11 space mission on television in Berlin, Germany. Mother and daughter watch a live television broadcast of the first moon landing. A Japanese family watches the astronauts talk to President Nixon during the walk on the Moon. The Washington Post on Monday, July 21, 1969, reported “The Eagle Has Landed—Two Men Walk on the Moon”. A Very Tense DescentThe landing was the most challenging and dangerous part of the mission. During their 12-minute descent, Armstrong and Aldrin used the lunar module’s descent engine to slow to near-zero velocity above the surface. Radio static and computer alarms distracted them. The guidance system steered them toward a crater with large boulders. Armstrong took manual control, but his maneuvers used up fuel. Just before landing, Mission Control can be heard telling the crew they had only “60 seconds” then “30 seconds” of propellants left. Eagle landed at 4:18 p.m. (EDT), on July 20, 1969. Object Highlight: Lunar Module Training Cockpit Technicians at the Grumman factory in Bethpage, New York, on Long Island, completed this cockpit mockup by installing simulator control panels and equipment. Grumman was the prime contractor for the lunar module. The right window displays actual film of the Apollo 11 landing as seen by Buzz Aldrin. The left window shows a modern recreation of what Neil Armstrong saw. The Eagle Has Landed Armstrong and Aldrin touched down on the Sea of Tranquility, a flat lava plain on the near side of the Moon. Armstrong immediately informed Mission Control, “Tranquility Base here, the Eagle has landed.” Tranquility Base became the call sign for the lunar module while on the Moon. Buzz Aldrin sets up the solar wind experiment during his Moon walk. In 2012, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter imaged the Apollo 11 landing site. Experiments left by the astronauts can be seen around the lunar module descent stage, the white shape just to the left of center. Armstrong’s footpath extends to Little West crater on the right. LM: Lunar Module LRRR: Laser Ranging Retro-Reflector PSEP: Passive Seismic Experiment Package "One Small Step" Skipping a planned rest period, Armstrong and Aldrin got permission from Mission Control to go outside early. At 10:56 p.m. (EDT), on July 20, 1969, Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the Moon, calling it, “one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.” Aldrin soon followed. They spent about two and a half hours on the surface, gathering samples, setting up experiments, and carrying out ceremonial duties, like planting the American flag. Armstrong retrieves equipment from a storage bay on Eagle’s descent stage. Armstrong walked to the edge of Little West crater and took several photographs looking back toward the lunar module. Science and Ceremony on the Moon During their short walk, Armstrong and Aldrin had to carry out both ceremonial duties and science tasks. They put up the flag, unveiled a plaque, and talked to President Richard Nixon. They also took the first samples from another world and set up three experiments. The flag, soil sampler, and experiments here are replicas or test and training versions, as the originals are still on the Moon. Aldrin stands with the U.S. flag on the Moon. Object Highlight: U.S. Flag Following a tradition of explorers, Armstrong and Aldrin planted their national flag in the lunar soil. This is a replica of the nylon flag they left on the Moon. The pole has a crossbar to hold the flag up, since there is no atmosphere there. Object Highlight: Solar Wind Composition Experiment This type of device, used on five Apollo missions, collected solar wind —charged particles from the Sun. With no atmosphere or magnetic field to shield it, the Moon is exposed to the flow of these charged particles. The particles embedded in the aluminum (or aluminum/platinum) sheet, which the astronauts took back to Earth for analysis. This is the flight-qualified backup unit for Apollo 11. After Apollo 11 it was given a better pole-locking mechanism. Object Highlight: Contingency Soil Sampler This training device is like the one Neil Armstrong used soon after he stepped onto the Moon. Collecting lunar soil as one of his first tasks ensured that a sample would return to Earth even if an emergency forced an early end to the Moon walk. Object Highlight: Passive Seismic Experiment This device contains four seismometers powered by two panels of solar cells. They measured lunar shock waves caused by moonquakes or impacts of meteoroids and manmade objects. Data regarding the strength, duration, and direction of those events were relayed back to Earth. This is the qualification model for the Apollo 11 unit, which sent data for about a month. Object Highlight: Laser Ranging Retro-Reflector The corner prisms of this device could reflect a beam of light from Earth precisely back in the direction from which it came. By timing the round trip of the light, scientists could measure the exact distance between the Earth and Moon. Reflectors placed on the lunar surface are still used in experiments involving powerful Earth-based lasers. This is the qualification model for the unit placed on the Moon by the Apollo 11 astronauts. The plaque on Eagle’s forward leg reads:
Eagle’s ascent stage meets Columbia in lunar orbit on July 21. Armstrong and Aldrin had launched from the surface a few hours earlier. The Earth was just rising as Michael Collins took this photo. Brought Back from the Moon Apollo spacecraft had limited room to store things for the return to Earth. NASA placed the highest priority on soil and rock samples. Also brought back were items the astronauts needed during their flight home, or that engineers and scientists wished to study afterward. Each astronaut carried a few personal items. Neil Armstrong also assembled a small collection of mementos from Eagle’s time on the lunar surface. Aldrin drives a core tube to collect a sample of lunar soil. Object Highlight: Lunar Sample Return Container Apollo 11 This “rock box” is one of two that held the very first samples of another world: 47.7 pounds (21.8 kilograms) of rocks and soil from the Sea of Tranquility. It was opened in the special Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston. Object Highlight: Omega Speedmaster Professional Chronograph Neil Armstrong, Apollo 11 Armstrong did not wear this watch while on the surface of the Moon, but he hung it inside the lunar module to replace a broken timer on his instrument panel. Object Highlight: Lunar Module Launch Alignment Star Chart Apollo 11 Aldrin was given this star chart to help him precisely adjust Eagle’s guidance system shortly before liftoff from the Moon. The stars are positioned for launch time. The circles represent the views he would see from the six possible positions of their Alignment Optical Telescope in the lunar module. Object Highlight: Crewman Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) This sight helped Armstrong judge the distance between Eagle and Columbia while docking in lunar orbit. Object Highlight: Lunar Module Emergency Wrench This Allen-head L-wrench was modified for use on the docking probe and drogue that connected Eagle and Columbia. In an emergency, an astronaut could use it to open the lunar module forward hatch or the command module hatch from outside. Object Highlight: Waist Tether In case of a docking failure, Armstrong and Aldrin might have needed to “spacewalk” from Eagle back to Columbia. Two waist tethers were provided as a safety measure. While on the Moon, Armstrong attached one inside the lunar module and formed a loop with it to support his legs during a brief sleep. Object Highlight: Data Acquisition Camera Mounted in Eagle’s right-hand window, this 16mm movie camera filmed the first Moon landing. It also took movies of the walks on the Moon and the Eagle’s liftoff the next day. Object Highlight: Temporary Stowage Bag Armstrong and Aldrin used this bag to stow things that could be misplaced or interfere with mission tasks. After their Moon walk, they filled it with equipment meant to be left behind in Eagle after it docked with Columbia. Neil Armstrong’s Collection of Eagle Hardware After Neil Armstrong’s death on August 25, 2012, his family discovered a white cloth bag in a closet. It contained what were obviously space-related items. They sent photos of the items to the Museum. Careful research determined that the bag and its contents were from Eagle. These are among the very few Apollo 11 artifacts brought back from Tranquility Base. Thanks to the Armstrong family, they are now available for preservation, research, and public display. The Armstrong family sent this photograph of the objects found in Neil’s closet in 2014. Other Items Found in the Bag
Return to Earth After 20 hours on the Moon, Armstrong and Aldrin launched from the lunar surface in Eagle’s ascent stage. They docked with Columbia and reunited with Collins, who greeted them warmly. They moved spacesuits, rock boxes, and other items into the command module. Then they abandoned Eagle and began their three-day journey back to Earth. On July 24, 1969, Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin splashed down in the Pacific. They had fulfilled President Kennedy’s 1961 challenge to “send a man to the Moon and return him safely to the Earth” before the end of the decade. President Nixon greets Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin on the USS Hornet on the day they returned. They are inside a special quarantine trailer to guard against the remote possibility they were carrying “Moon germs.” The trailer was carried to Houston, where they were transferred to a special quarantine facility for almost three weeks. See the Apollo 11 quarantine trailer at the Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia. Mission Control in Houston celebrates after splashdown. A Triumphant World Tour After the astronauts were released from quarantine, President Nixon sent them on a “Giantstep-Apollo 11 Presidential Goodwill Tour.” It emphasized America’s willingness to share its space achievements, but it also demonstrated America’s Cold War technological superiority. Armstrong, Collins, Aldrin, and their wives visited 24 countries and 27 cities in 38 days.Commemorative items presented to them by nations, companies, and organizations showed that people worldwide looked upon the first Moon landing as a human achievement, not just an American one. The Apollo 11 Goodwill Tour
Belgian King Baudouin I and Queen Fabiola pose with the astronauts and their wives in the reception hall of the Royal Palace in Brussels. Thousands of people swarm around the Apollo 11 astronauts (wearing sombreros) on their motorcade ride through Mexico City, the first stop on their world tour. They later received keys to the city from the mayor and ate dinner with the Mexican president. The astronauts and their wives receive an audience with Pope Paul VI in the Papal Library of St. Peter’s Cathedral at the Vatican. Australian Prime Minister John G. Gorton welcomes astronauts and their wives (far right) on their arrival in Sydney. One of the U.S. presidential aircraft flew the tour group and its support team around the world. 15/21
Astronauts Explore the Moon, Part 1 After Apollo 11’s landing of humans on the Moon, the United States made five more landings. Each mission was more ambitious than the next, as instruments became more sophisticated and mobility increased. Lunar exploration was not easy, but Apollo crews collected samples and data that transformed our understanding of the history of the Moon and the solar system. Apollo Landing Sites For safety, NASA chose flat lava plains for Apollos 11 and 12. Apollo 14 landed on the site planned for the failed Apollo 13 mission—a slightly rougher, more scientifically interesting region. The last three missions, 15, 16, and 17, had astronaut driven rovers and lunar modules that could stay on the Moon longer. NASA was now confident that it could safely land crews on sites surrounded by mountains or in the heavily cratered highlands. These targets would yield the most science. Apollo 11 Landing Site Sea of Tranquility For safety reasons, NASA chose a flat site for the first landing. The first rock samples from another world revealed that the Tranquility plains, made of volcanic rock, were very old, having formed 3.7 billion years ago. Compared to Earth rocks, the volcanic rocks of Apollo 11 are high in titanium and low in sodium and water. Apollo 12 Landing Site Ocean of Storms The site was on a dark volcanic plain crossed by a bright streak of material extending from Copernicus crater. Astronauts collected samples from the plain, and of material ejected from deep below the surface by the impact that formed Copernicus. The samples helped date the impact (relatively young) and the volcanic rocks (much older). Comparing them to Apollo 11 samples, scientists showed that volcanism continued for hundreds of millions of years. Apollo 14 Landing Site Fra Mauro After two successful landings, NASA was ready to take on a hillier site. The Fra Mauro formation is a blanket of rock ejected by the huge impact that formed the Imbrium basin, a crater over 700 miles (1,100 kilometers) across. Samples from the site dated to 3.85 billion years, the likely age of the impact. Apollo 15 Landing Site Hadley-Apennine With three Moon walks and a rover to add mobility, the Apollo 15 astronauts were able to tackle a more scientifically complex site. Landing on the edge of the huge Imbrium impact basin, they collected samples from the somewhat younger volcanic rock that filled the basin, the ancient Apennine mountains that formed the basin rim, and the intriguing long and winding valley known as Hadley Rille. Apollo 16 Landing Site Descartes Apollo 16 explored the lunar highlands—the brighter, older, rougher areas of the Moon. Its landing site was in a region of smooth plains and rugged hills near Descartes crater. Many scientists thought this site would be largely volcanic, but the returned samples were mostly material ejected from the giant impacts that formed the vast basins on the Moon. Apollo 17 Landing Site Taurus-Littrow Orbital photos and observations showed very dark material and dark-rimmed craters here, on the edge of the Sea of Serenity. Scientists thought these represented young volcanism, but the samples proved that the dark terrain was not young; the dark rimmed craters were not volcanic after all. Rather, impacts had excavated old dark material from below the surface. Return to the Moon: Apollo 12 and 14With the Moon race won, NASA launched more lunar landing missions to collect a wide variety of samples, demonstrate pinpoint landings, and show that astronauts could walk longer distances in their spacesuits than Armstrong and Aldrin had. Apollo 12 and 14 paved the way for even more complex missions. Object Highlight: Home Sweet Home By Alan Bean Acrylic on aircraft board, 1983 Apollo 12 astronaut Alan Bean devoted his post-NASA career to painting. Here he shows Pete Conrad unpacking equipment from their lander, Intrepid. To the right is a large unfolding antenna for communicating with Earth. Apollo 12 Launched: November 14, 1969 The Lunar Module Intrepid made a precision landing near the robotic lander Surveyor 3. Charles Conrad and Alan Bean made two Moon walks lasting a total of nearly eight hours. They deployed the first nuclear-powered lunar surface experiment package and collected 75 pounds (34 kilograms) of lunar material plus parts of Surveyor 3. Richard Gordon piloted the Yankee Clipper mothership in lunar orbit. (From left) Charles "Pete" Conrad Jr., commander; Richard F. Gordon Jr., command module pilot; and Alan L. Bean, lunar module pilot stand in front of a lunar module mock-up at Cape Canaveral. Conrad reaches toward Surveyor 3’s camera, which the astronauts retrieved, along with several other pieces of the spacecraft. Lunar Module Intrepid stands on the horizon. This Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter image shows the Apollo 12 descent stage, deployed experiments, and astronaut footpaths. A curving line shows where the astronauts walked to Surveyor 3, resting at the edge of the large crater. See the Surveyor 3 camera, recovered from the Moon by the Apollo 12 crew, in Exploring the Planets on the second floor. Object Highlight: SNAP 27 Nuclear Generator and Cask This generator converted heat from the decay of radioactive plutonium 238 into 72 watts of electric power, enough to operate the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) for years. SNAP 27 units were used on Apollo 12 and later missions. The fuel cask held the radioactive fuel cylinder until it was inserted into the generator. This cask was used for training.This display is not radioactive. Object Highlight: Fuel Transfer Tools On Apollo 12, the fuel element for the nuclear generator got stuck partway out of its cask. After discussing the matter with Bean, Conrad resorted to using a hammer. The fuel finally came loose after several sharp strikes. Conrad’s lesson: “Never come to the Moon without a hammer.” These tools are training versions. Apollo 13 "Okay, Houston we've had a problem here." Launched: April 11, 1970 This mission was the only Apollo lunar landing that did not succeed. An oxygen tank explosion on the way to the Moon crippled the spacecraft and forced the astronauts to return to Earth. Its landing site became the objective for Apollo 14. Apollo 14 Launched: January 31, 1971 Apollo 14 carried out the aborted mission of Apollo 13. The astronauts landed in a hilly area near the lunar equator. A hand-pulled, wheeled cart allowed them to walk longer distances and carry more geological tools. Alan Shepard, the first American in space and the only Mercury astronaut to go to the Moon, commanded the mission. He landed with Edgar Mitchell, while Stuart Roosa remained in orbit. (From left) Edgar D. Mitchell, lunar module pilot; Alan B. Shepard Jr., commander; and Stuart A. Roosa, command module pilot pose in front of their Saturn V during its rollout to the launch pad. In this Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter image, the dark lines are the paths the astronauts walked to set up the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) and collect rock samples. Astronauts also collected rocks near Cone crater, a relatively young impact crater. The arrows mark the astronauts’ path. They came as close as 56 feet (17 meters) from the rim and collected rocks from deep beneath the surface that had been blasted out of the crater by the impact. Object Highlight: Hand Tool Carrier and Tools Astronauts on Apollo 12 and Apollo 14 used a hand tool carrier, with racks for tools, sample containers, cameras, and other equipment. Apollo 12 astronauts had to carry theirs around. The Apollo 14 carrier was mounted on a wheeled cart. Most tools were left on the Moon. Displayed here are training versions of many of the tools used on Apollo 14. Hand Tool Carrier Equipment
Apollo 14 commander Alan Shepard stands by the Modular Equipment Transporter (MET), which the astronauts nicknamed the “rickshaw.” Mounted on top of the cart was a tool carrier with tools, like the one you see in the case to the right. Saddle Rock, the largest boulder the astronauts sampled near the rim of Cone crater, is 15 feet (4.5 meters) wide. Roving Explorers “Man, this is really a rocking-rolling ride, isn’t it?” -David Scott, Apollo 15 Astronaut Apollo 15, 16, and 17 The final three Apollo missions were the longest and most complex explorations of the Moon. Equipped with motorized roving vehicles, astronauts conducted more experiments, collected more lunar samples, and travelled much farther than earlier missions. Science from Lunar Orbit While two astronauts worked on the Moon, the command module pilot remained in orbit. He took photographs and performed research and other duties while waiting for his crewmates to return. On Apollos 15, 16, and 17, the service module behind the command module had a special bay with large cameras and scientific instruments, including radars and experiments to map abundances of surface elements. The astronaut operated the cameras and experiments remotely Why Did America Stop Going to the Moon? After the historic first walk on the Moon in 1969, U.S. public support for Apollo quickly declined. Beating the Soviet Union to the Moon seemed like enough. Many Americans had been leery of spending billions on Apollo. Expensive foreign and domestic crises, notably the Vietnam War, urban riots, and environmental problems, also undercut support. America’s human exploration of the Moon ended in 1972. The last Soviet robotic mission took place in 1976. Not until the 1990s would robotic spacecraft return to the Moon. Apollo 15 Launched: July 26, 1971 The 12-day mission included three Moon walks by David Scott and James Irwin and the first use of a lunar rover. Alfred Worden remained in orbit and operated a battery of science instruments contained in a new bay in the service module. Other spacecraft modifications allowed the astronauts to carry more payload to the lunar surface and stay longer. From left: David R. Scott, commander; Alfred M. Worden, command module pilot; and James B. Irwin, lunar module pilot. The astronauts landed on a dramatic and scientifically important site near mountainous terrain and not far from a deep volcanic valley. This Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter image shows the Apollo 15 lunar module descent stage (center) and lunar rover (right). The dark lines are astronaut footpaths. Apollo 16 Launched: April 16, 1972 Astronauts John Young and Charles Duke landed on the bright, ancient, and heavily cratered highlands of the Moon. Traveling by rover, they covered 16.5 miles (26.6 kilometers) and collected 210 pounds (96 kilograms) of lunar rocks and soil. Meanwhile, Thomas “Ken” Mattingly continued the extensive mapping of the Moon from orbit. From left: Thomas K. Mattingly II, command module pilot; John W. Young, commander; and Charles M. Duke Jr.,lunar module pilot. The astronauts landed between two bright-rayed craters called North Ray and South Ray. The chemistry of the ejected rocks from North Ray suggests that a comet impact may have formed this crater. The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter captured this view of the Apollo 16 landing site. The label points to a line of devices called geophones, placed by the astronauts and used to measure seismic waves created by small explosions set off after they departed. Apollo 17 Launched: December 7, 1972 The crew included the only trained geologist to go to the Moon, Harrison “Jack” Schmitt, along with Eugene Cernan and Ronald Evans. Cernan and Schmitt traveled 21.6 miles (34.8 kilometers) in their rover and collected 245 pounds (111 kilograms) of rock and soil samples from 22 locations. Cernan holds the distinction of being the last Apollo astronaut to step off the Moon. Eugene Cernan, commander (seated); Ronald Evans, command module pilot (right); and Harrison Schmitt, lunar module pilot (left) pose with a rover trainer in front of Launch Complex 39A, Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The Taurus-Littrow site contained an example of a thrust fault, as well as a landslide (the light-colored area) that brought ancient rocks from the top of South Massif mountain to the valley floor where astronauts could collect them. This Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter image shows the Apollo 17 lunar rover parked about 490 feet (150 meters) southwest of the lunar module descent stage. Equipment for RovingThe lunar module was redesigned for the last three Apollo missions, to transport a rover and other equipment for extended exploration. It also carried more oxygen, water, and electrical power, so astronauts could stay three days on the Moon. The rovers enabled astronauts to visit more geologic features, collect more samples, and carry an impressive number of tools. Object Highlight: Lunar Roving Vehicle A battery-powered “dune buggy” like this one was stored folded up in the descent stage of the lunar modules on Apollo 15, 16, and 17. Unpacked and deployed on the Moon, the rover could move forward and backward. Astronauts steered it with a hand controller, rather than a steering wheel. This qualification test unit was subjected to the temperatures and vibrations expected during the mission. How to Unpack a Lunar Rover
Apollo 15, 16, and 17 astronauts used drills to extract soil column samples and to create holes for placing two heat flow probes into the surface. It has a battery-operated motor with specialized drill bits and modular core stems. Apollo 15 astronaut David Scott picks up a drill. To his right is the drill stem rack. In the foreground is the Solar Wind Spectrometer, with wires connecting it to the central experiment station. Object Highlight: Bore Stems To measure the Moon’s internal heat, astronauts drilled two holes in the lunar surface using bore stems like these and then inserted heat flow probes Object Highlight: Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph This is a reconstructed engineering model of the first astronomical telescope used on another world. The one Apollo 16 astronaut John Young operated is still on the Moon. Astronomer George Carruthers built both cameras at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, DC. This one holds the original film cassette brought back from the one on the Moon. Diverse Stories: George Robert Carruthers Space Engineer and Astronomer George Carruthers grew up in rural Ohio and on Chicago’s South Side. He developed an early interest in astronomy and built his first telescope at age 10. After earning an engineering doctorate from the University of Illinois, he joined the Naval Research Laboratory in 1964. Carruthers designed the first Moon-based observatory, the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph, for Apollo 16. In the 1980s, Carruthers created the Science & Engineers Apprentice Program, which brings high school students to work with Naval Research Laboratory scientists. He especially tried to reach out to students of color. Carruthers (right) supervises refurbishment of the camera on display. The Carruthers camera on the Moon during Apollo 16. The astronauts positioned the camera in the lunar module’s shadow to eliminate sunlight during photography. Object Highlight: Lunar Rover Wheel This is a spare wheel and fender. The tire is made of a woven mesh of zinc-coated piano wire with riveted titanium treads. The chevron pattern was to keep the wheels from sinking, but the Moon’s surface proved harder than expected. The wheels left only shallow tracks. Object Highlight: Substitute Rover Fender Apollo 17 Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt made this fender for their rover while on the Moon. Object Highlight: Rover Fender Extension Apollo 17 This is the broken fender extension the Apollo 17 crew brought back with them. It’s made of epoxy-impregnated fiberglass. A Quick Fix to a Fender IMAGE: This is the fender repair devised by the astronauts on the Moon. During the first Apollo 17 Moon walk, Gene Cernan accidentally tore off the rover’s right rear fender extension by snagging it with the hammer in his spacesuit leg pocket. He tried taping it back on, but the tape would not stick well to the dusty surfaces. The extension fell off again, causing the wheel to throw dust onto the crew as they drove. Experts in Houston came up with a solution. It involved taping together four lunar maps and fastening them to the fender with two clamps from the lunar module. It worked. In Houston, John Young (left), Charlie Duke, Deke Slayton, Rocco Petrone, and Ron Blevins examine the prototype fender repair for the Apollo 17 rover. Image Highlight: Apollo 17 Panorama In this image you can see an expansive view of the Taurus-Littrow valley on the edge of the Sea of Serenity, where Apollo 17’s lunar module landed. Harrison Schmitt is working in the foreground. On December 11, 1972, astronaut Eugene Cernan took the photos that make up this mosaic. Which Hit First? Apollo 15 commander David Scott dropped a hammer and feather at the same time. As Galileo predicted centuries ago, heavy and light objects falling in a vacuum would hit at the same time. Apollo cameras revealed the variety of lunar surface features in greater detail than ever before:
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Astronauts Explore the Moon, Part 2 Soviet Robots Return Samples and Rove the SurfaceThe Soviet program to land cosmonauts on the Moon failed without ever launching a crew. But the Soviets did have more success with robotic probes in the 1970s. Soviet landers returned three small samples of lunar material to Earth. Two rovers explored the Moon for many months. The sample container from Luna 16 after it parachuted to a landing in Soviet Kazakhstan Luna 16 landed on the Moon in 1970 and returned 3.6 ounces (101 grams) of dark volcanic soil to Earth. A large drill (far left) took a core sample of the lunar soil and then rotated upward to insert it into the return capsule on top. The top half of the spacecraft fired its rocket engine and returned to Earth. Luna Sample Return Missions Three out of 11 Soviet attempts to return soil samples from the Moon succeeded. The first, Luna 15, was launched in July 1969, just before Apollo 11, to try and beat the United States to a lunar sample. It crashed. Luna 16 succeeded 14 months later, along with Luna 20 in 1972 and Luna 24 in 1976. Luna 17 carried Lunokhod 1 to the Moon, where it rolled down ramps onto the lunar surface. An operator back on Earth guided it in real time, with only a 3-second round-trip time delay in the signal. The rover operated for nearly a year, traveled 6 miles (10 kilometers), and returned over 20,000 television pictures. The First Rover on the Moon Engineers at the Lavochkin Design Bureau wanted to explore beyond the landing sites. So they devised a remotely driven rover—Lunokhod. The first rover on the Moon was not the one Apollo 15 astronauts drove. It was Lunokhod 1, eight months earlier in November 1970. Lunokhod 2 landed in January 1973, shortly after Apollo 17 returned to Earth. Object Highlight: Lunokhod Toy This Estonian-made Lunokhod toy runs on batteries. The plastic lid opens and closes as the rover rolls along. Made by the Norma factory, it was called Kuukulgur-N (Estonian for Moon runner or rover, plus N for Norma). Science from Lunar Orbit While two astronauts worked on the Moon, the command module pilot remained in orbit. He took photographs and performed research and other duties while waiting for his crewmates to return. On Apollos 15, 16, and 17, the service module behind the command module had a special bay with large cameras and scientific instruments, including radars and experiments to map abundances of surface elements. The astronaut operated the cameras and experiments remotely. Object Highlight: Mapping Camera Apollo 15, 16, and 17 had cameras like this one mounted in their service modules. They photographed 15% of the lunar surface. The images resolved objects as small as 66 feet (20 meters) across. During the trip home, the astronauts performed spacewalks to retrieve the film canisters, mounted on the right side of the camera. The camera was modified from one used in the CORONA spy satellite program. Scientist-astronaut Harrison H. Schmitt, lunar module pilot, with his adjustable sampling scoop, heads for a selected rock on the lunar surface to retrieve the sample for study. Object Highlight: Lunar Overshoes Eugene Cernan, Apollo 17 These overshoes were the last human-worn objects to touch the surface of the Moon. Eugene Cernan wore them on his three spacewalks in December 1972. They made the last footprints on the Moon when he stepped off the surface, and they retain traces of lunar dust. Tactile: Touch an Apollo Overshoe Footprint This distinctive footprint was made by the Apollo astronauts when stepping in soft lunar soils. They strapped the overshoes on over the boots that were integrated into their A-7L spacesuits. Only the Apollo 17 astronauts brought their overshoes home. Object Highlight: Apollo 15 EVA By Pierre Mion Acrylic on canvas, 1971 James Irwin stands in the command module hatch as the Moon recedes in the background. Irwin is assisting Alfred Worden (out of view in front), who is retrieving the film canisters from the mapping and panoramic cameras in the service module. Diverse Stories: Farouk El-Baz Pioneering Planetary Scientist Born in Egypt, geologist El-Baz began his association with Apollo at Bellcomm, a NASA contractor that led lunar science planning. He served as secretary of the Landing Site Selection Committee, principal investigator of visual observations and photography, and chairman of the Astronaut Training Group of the Apollo Photo Team. After Apollo, he became the founding director of the Museum’s Center for Earth and Planetary Studies. Farouk El-Baz (right) helps Apollo 17 astronaut Ron Evans (center) train for visual observations from lunar orbit. Lunar Samples: A Window on the Past Lunar samples and data from Apollo transformed our understanding of the Moon and the solar system. The Moon has no wind, rain, rivers, oceans, or active volcanoes. Its battered and scarred surface records a violent history of explosive impacts and flowing lava. This story of the solar system’s early development has been erased on Earth. But it remains frozen in the face of the Moon. In the leading theory for the Moon’s origin, a body the size of Mars collided with the early Earth. Part of it remained with the Earth. But debris from the impact was ejected into orbit, where it came together to form the Moon. Collecting and Documenting Lunar Samples Astronauts used many tools to document, collect, and return samples from the Moon. This Apollo 12 photo shows about a 3-inch (8-centimeter) square of the lunar surface photographed with a Lunar Surface Closeup Camera. The astronauts operated the camera by holding it against the object to be photographed and pulling the trigger. Object Highlight: Lunar Surface Closeup Camera A 35mm camera designed to take close-up, three-dimensional pictures flew on Apollo 11, 12, and 14. Because the project was led by Cornell geologist Tommy Gold, the camera was always referred to as the Gold camera. Object Highlight: Lunar Surface Return Container This so-called “rock box” was used on both the Apollo 14 and Apollo 16 missions. An aluminum mesh liner helped absorb shocks caused by reentry and splashdown. The special triple seal was designed to prevent contamination of samples before they could be examined under laboratory conditions. Object Highlight: Special Environmental Sample Container Similar in design and concept to the rock box, much smaller sample containers like this one were used on all the Apollo missions. It was designed to collect completely uncontaminated samples from the lunar surface. Object Highlight: Sample Scale It was important for astronauts to know how heavy their rock and soil containers were, so they didn’t exceed lunar liftoff weight limits. This type of scale was used on Apollo 14 through 17. It was calibrated in 5-pound increments up to 80 pounds, equivalent to about 480 pounds (218 kilograms) on Earth. Did You Know? The astronauts brought back a total of 840 Earth pounds (382 kilograms) of lunar samples from all six landings. Lunar Samples Anorthosite The Highland Rock Collected in the lunar highlands by John Young on Apollo 16, this rock is about 4.4 billion years old. Anorthosite is made up almost entirely of plagioclase feldspar, a common, light-weight, light-colored mineral on Earth. It is an igneous rock, which means it cooled and solidified from hot melted material. The primitive lunar crust was most likely made up of anorthosite. Magma Ocean As the Moon came together, it was mostly or entirely molten. As this magma ocean cooled, minerals began to crystallize. Heavier minerals sank, while lighter ones floated to the top and formed the outer crust of the Moon. This ancient crust has been battered by meteorite impacts to produce the rugged highlands we see today. The anorthosite sample was cut from this large rock shown here on the lunar surface. The rock weighed 4.4 pounds (2 kilograms). How can we tell how old a lunar sample is? Radioactive decay of certain elements occurs at known rates. By comparing the ratio of a related pair of elements in a rock sample, scientists can estimate its age. Apollo 16 astronaut John Young collects an Anorthosite sample from the lunar surface. Young: Okay, Houston. I just picked up this rock. It’s a white rock - a very white rock - but it has a black glass layer on the back of it, or what appears to be black glass. A thick black glass. And it’s about a hand-size specimen. I can’t get it in a bag, but I’ll get it anyway. And it has a lot of zap craters in it; and, lining the zap craters, are some white . . . whitish substance. This is the anorthosite sample in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at NASA’s Houston center, before it was cut into smaller pieces for study and display. Breccia The Smashed-Up Rock Apollo 17 astronauts found this rock on the rim of a small crater. A breccia is made of irregularly shaped pieces of other rocks. Through time, meteorites crashing into the Moon have smashed, shattered, and shocked the surface, crushing and melting rock fragments together. Most highland rocks are breccias, which shows how widespread and important this process is on the Moon. Impact! After the lunar surface cooled and hardened, an onslaught of solar system debris rained down on it and blasted out craters and large basins. Lunar sample ages suggest this period of heavy and violent impacts took place about 4 billion years ago. Since then, impacts have continued to shape the face of the Moon. Small ones still scar its surface today. The Orientale basin is a huge bull’s-eye on the western edge of the Moon’s Earth-facing side. A giant impact formed it around 3.8 billion years ago. It’s about 590 miles (950 kilometers) across, the distance from Washington, DC, to Montreal, Canada. In 2013, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter found a recent crater (center, enlarged in inset) by comparing images of the same area taken at different times during its mission. This crater formed sometime after June 2009. The breccia on display is one of several samples taken from the rock at right center. This is the breccia sample in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at NASA’s Houston center, before it was cut into smaller pieces for study and display. Basalt The Mare Rock Collected by David Scott on Apollo 15, this rock is 3.3 billion years old. It has been nicknamed the Seatbelt Basalt, because Scott pretended to fix his rover seatbelt while he was actually making an unapproved stop to collect this rock. Basalt is a fine-grained, dark-colored volcanic rock. It is rich in iron, magnesium, and plagioclase feldspar, a common rock-forming mineral on Earth. The dark plains on the Moon are made up largely of basalts. Lava Floods Millions of years after the giant impact basins formed, lava flowed up through cracks in the lunar crust and poured over the surface. The lava filled the circular basins and cooled, forming dark-colored, flat plains called maria (pronounced “MAH-ree-a”; singular: mare, “MAR-ay”). Lava flows that cooled billions of years ago extend across the surface. These are about 115 feet (35 meters) thick at their borders. The low Sun angle helps highlight these features which are outlined by crinkled edges. Here is the basalt rock as it rested on the lunar surface (upper middle of the photograph, to the left of the white tool). The basalt sample on display was cut from the rock shown here. The holes in the rock formed when gas bubbles were trapped as the molten rock solidified. Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin collect a basalt sample from the lunar surface:
Regolith The Lunar Soil The lunar surface is covered with a thick layer of soil called regolith. This sample was collected from the lunar rover on Apollo 17. Not at all like soil on Earth, regolith is made up of tiny, ground up, pulverized pieces of rock formed by the bombardment of the surface by meteorites. Reduced to Dust The lunar surface today tells the story of eons of bombardment by meteorites large and small. This bombardment has created a soil of dust particles and fragments called the regolith. With his first steps on the Moon, Neil Armstrong described the properties of the lunar soil. “Yes, the surface is fine and powdery. I can kick it up loosely with my toe. It does adhere in fine layers, like powdered charcoal, to the sole and sides of my boots. I only go in a small fraction of an inch, maybe an eighth of an inch, but I can see the footprints of my boots and the treads in the fine, sandy particles.” -Neil Armstrong, July 20, 1969 Apollo 11 Astronaut Why Did America Stop Going to the Moon? After the historic first walk on the Moon in 1969, U.S. public support for Apollo quickly declined. Beating the Soviet Union to the Moon seemed like enough. Many Americans had been leery of spending billions on Apollo. Expensive foreign and domestic crises, notably the Vietnam War, urban riots, and environmental problems, also undercut support. America’s human exploration of the Moon ended in 1972. The last Soviet robotic mission took place in 1976. Not until the 1990s would robotic spacecraft return to the Moon. 17/21
The Exploration Continues The Cold War race to the Moon ended in the 1970s. But several countries began sending spacecraft there again in the 1990s. The first new American robotic mission to the Moon began in 1994. Several nations and international agencies have announced ambitious lunar programs including the United States, China, and the European Space Agency. People will visit the Moon again soon. Human fascination with the Moon continues. Where will it lead next? Back to the Moon with Robots After a 14-year gap following the last Soviet robotic mission in 1976, lunar exploration resumed. Just as in the 1950s and 1960s, national prestige, technology, science, and possible human exploration have motivated new missions to the Moon. America's Return to the MoonNew American Moon missions began in 1994 with the launch of Clementine, a Defense Department spacecraft. A unique experiment related to missile defense, the project helped revive scientific interest in the Moon. NASA followed up with flights in 1998 and from 2009 to 2013. New robotic missions, often by commercial companies, are being planned to support journeys by astronauts. Asia and Europe Go to the MoonSince the 1990s, the European Space Agency and several Asian nations have undertaken Moon missions. Japan, China, and India have sent probes that returned valuable scientific data. These explorations seem to be motivated by national prestige and the desire to develop national spaceflight capabilities. Gallery Connections: ClementineSee an engineering model of the Clementine spacecraft outside this gallery in the Commons area. In December 2018, China’s Chang’e 4 became the first spacecraft to land on the Moon’s far side. The main lander is at left, and the small robot it deployed is on the right. Chinese technicians inspect the Chang’e 5 return capsule, December 16, 2020. It carried the first sample of lunar soil back to Earth since the Soviet Union’s Luna 24 in 1976. Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, Structural Verification Unit The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) has provided the highest resolution imagery of lunar features ever obtained. Since its launch in 2009, it has mapped the Moon and increased our understanding of lunar volcanism, global shrinkage, and other geological processes. It has also assessed lunar radiation hazards and photographed Apollo landing sites. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center made this version, called the Structural Verification Unit (SVU), to test the spacecraft structure during the severe vibrations of launch. This LRO image shows a large cliff, part of the wall of Antoniadi crater, 2.5 miles (4 kilometers) high. Some lunar mountains rise more than twice that height above the local terrain. Mount Marilyn is a triangular mountain that astronaut Jim Lovell named after his wife during Apollo 8, the first lunar orbit mission. It served as a navigational landmark for the Apollo 11 crew during the first landing. The Taurus-Littrow Valley (center) was the site of the Apollo 17 landing. Astronauts Jack Schmitt and Gene Cernan explored the lava-filled valley and the mountains that border it. The many faces of the LRO team in 2008, outside the clean room at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, where they assembled the spacecraft. The LRO control team at NASA Goddard executing an urgent update to the spacecraft’s software in 2019. The two people standing in front of the desk are sign-language interpreters for the deputy mission director, Apurva Varia in the red shirt. Diverse Stories: Apurva P. Varia Aerospace Engineer and Mission Director Born in India, Apurva Varia was inspired by a televised Space Shuttle launch to pursue a space career. As a Deaf person, he did not meet astronaut selection criteria, so he went into engineering. After summer internships at NASA, he became a propulsion engineer at NASA Goddard in Greenbelt, Maryland, in 2002. He helped develop rocket systems for robotic scientific spacecraft. Around 2014, he became interested in directing space missions after seeing the movie Apollo 13. He is the deputy mission director for LRO and is the primary mission director for two spacecraft, notably Parker Solar Probe. Artemis: Humans Return to the MoonIn ancient Greek mythology, Artemis was the sister of Apollo. NASA states the Artemis program “will land the first woman and first person of color on the Moon” —as follow-up to the 1960s Apollo project. Europe, Canada, Japan, and commercial space companies are cooperating with NASA on Artemis. In 2023, NASA plans to launch astronauts to the Moon for the first time since Apollo 17 in 1972. Four will orbit it during the Artemis II mission. A landing may follow on Artemis III. NASA astronaut Jessica Meir (left), one of 18 astronauts eligible for early Artemis missions, speaks to the news media on December 9, 2020. With her are fellow Artemis astronauts Joseph Acaba, Jessica Watkins, Matthew Dominick, and Anne McClain. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, they are wearing masks. Ales-cia Winsley, a guidance, navigation, and control engineer at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, participates in an Artemis I simulation inside the Launch Control Center on February 3, 2020. Artemis I uncrewed and the first test of the Space Launch System rocket and Orion spacecraft that will take astronauts back to the Moon. The Goals of ArtemisArtemis will develop the capability for sustained human exploration of the Moon and Mars. It will build a small station in lunar orbit, the Gateway, and land astronauts near the south pole of the Moon. That site was chosen because there is water ice in permanently shaded craters around the pole. Artemis may set up a lunar base there. The Gateway will have elements from the U.S., European Space Agency (ESA), Canada, and Japan. Astronauts from many countries will participate in both lunar orbit and landing missions. Commercial space firms will deliver cargo to the Gateway and crew, and equipment to the lunar surface. The smaller Orion spacecraft approaches the larger Gateway station in lunar orbit. It carries four astronauts from Earth. ESA is supplying the Orion’s service module, the part with solar panels on the right of the spacecraft. In 2021, NASA awarded the contract for Artemis’s Human Landing System to the firm SpaceX. It would use its giant Starship vehicle to ferry astronauts from lunar orbit down to the surface. Object Highlight: Space Launch System (SLS) Look up to see a model of the Block 1A version of the giant SLS rocket that will launch Artemis astronauts to the Moon. In the nose is the Orion spacecraft that carries four crewmembers. The actual rocket is 322 ft. (98 m) tall, with an initial thrust more powerful than the Apollo Saturn V. 18/21
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